Nuclear Power and the Environment -- Contents -- Nuclear Power Generation - Past, Present and Future -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Origins of Nuclear Power: The Nuclear Weapons Programme -- 3 Expansion of Nuclear Power -- 4 A Period of Decline -- 5 A Nuclear Renaissance? Possibilities and Challenges -- 5.1 Uranium: A Sustainable Energy Source? -- 5.2 Nuclear Power Economics -- 5.3 Shortages in Skilled Labour and Materials -- 5.4 Nuclear Safety -- 5.5 Nuclear Waste Disposal and Decommissioning Nuclear Plants -- 5.6 Proliferation Risks -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Nuclear Fuel Cycles: Interfaces with the Environment -- 1 Nuclear Fission as an Energy Resource -- 2 Nuclear Fuel -- 2.1 Uranium Mining -- 2.2 Uranium Fuel Production and Use -- 2.3 Modern Civil Reactor Fuels -- 2.3.1 Plutonium -- 2.4 Irradiation of Nuclear Fuel -- 2.5 Alternative Fuels -- 2.5.1 Uranium/Plutonium Fast Reactors -- 2.5.2 Highly Enriched Uranium -- 2.5.3 Thorium -- 3 Nuclear Fuel Recycling -- 3.1 Separation of Uranium and Plutonium -- 3.2 Other Reasons to Reprocess -- 3.3 Historical Reprocessing Technologies -- 3.3.1 Precipitation Processes -- 3.4 Purex -- 3.5 Wastes from Fuel Reprocessing -- 3.6 Other Solvent Extraction Processes -- 4 Waste Management Options -- 4.1 The UK Waste Inventory -- 5 Impact of the ''Global Nuclear Renaissance'' -- 5.1 Growth in Demand -- 5.2 Implications for the Fuel Cycle -- 6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Nuclear Accidents -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The 1957 Windscale Fire -- 2.1 Events Leading to the Accident -- 2.2 Environmental Contamination -- 2.3 Radiation Exposures and Health Impacts -- 2.4 Social and Psychological Consequences -- 3 The Kyshtym Explosion -- 3.1 Events Leading to the Accident -- 3.2 Environmental Contamination -- 3.3 Radiation Exposures and their Environmental and Health Impacts.

3.4 Social and Psychological Impacts -- 4 Three-Mile Island -- 4.1 Events Leading to the Accident -- 4.2 Environmental Contamination -- 4.3 Radiation Exposures and their Environmental and Health Impacts -- 4.4 Social and Psychological Impacts -- 5 The Chernobyl Accident -- 5.1 Events Leading to the Accident -- 5.2 Environmental Contamination -- 5.3 Radiation Exposures and their Environmental and Health Impacts -- 5.4 Social and Psychological Impacts -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Management of Land Contaminated by the Nuclear Legacy -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Contamination at Worldwide Nuclear Facilities -- 2.1 United Kingdom -- 2.1.1 Sellafield -- 2.1.2 Dounreay -- 2.2 Russia -- 2.2.1 Mayak -- 2.3 United States of America -- 2.3.1 Rocky Flats -- 2.3.2 Oak Ridge -- 2.3.3 Hanford -- 3 Depleted Uranium -- 4 Remediation -- 4.1 Bioremediation -- 4.2 Chemical Redox Reactions -- 4.3 Permeable Reactive Barrier -- 4.4 Sediment Washing -- 4.5 Electrokinetic Remediation -- 5 Case Studies -- 5.1 Hanford Case Study -- 5.2 Rifle Case Study -- 5.3 Oak Ridge Case Study -- 6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Decommissioning of Nuclear Sites -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Goal of Decommissioning -- 3 Stages of Decommissioning -- 4 The Scale of the Decommissioning Challenge in the UK -- 5 Decommissioning Techniques -- 6 Selection of a Decommissioning Approach -- 7 Environmental Impacts of Decommissioning -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Geodisposal of Higher Activity Wastes -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Radioactive Wastes -- 2.1 High Level Wastes -- 2.2 Intermediate Level Waste -- 2.3 Low Level Waste -- 2.4 Other Potential Wastes -- 3 Geological Disposal -- 3.1 The GDF Concept -- 3.2 International Experience -- 3.2.1 Suitable Host Geologies -- 3.2.2 Engineering Approaches -- 3.3 Implementing the UK GDF.

3.3.1 Historical Perspective, Public Consultation, Policy Decisions, and Responsibilities -- 3.3.2 Guiding Principles and Timeline -- 3.3.3 Site Selection -- 3.3.4 Inventory of Geodisposal Wastes -- 3.3.5 Conditioning and Packaging of Geodisposal Wastes -- 3.3.6 Interim Storage of Geodisposal Wastes -- 3.3.7 Reference Scenarios -- 4 Environmental Chemistry Research Challenges in Geological Disposal -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Pathways of Radioactive Substances in the Environment -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Sources of Radionuclides in the Environment -- 2.1 Nuclear Weapons -- 2.2 Nuclear Fuel Cycle -- 2.3 Depleted Uranium -- 2.4 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material -- 2.5 Accidental Release -- 3 Environmental Chemistry of Key Contaminants -- 4 Processes and Factors affecting Radionuclide Transport in the Atmosphere -- 5 Processes and Factors affecting Radionuclide Transport in Aquatic Systems -- 5.1 Sorption to Mineral Surfaces -- 5.2 Redox Reactions -- 5.3 Complexation Reactions -- 5.4 (Co-)Precipitation -- 5.5 Colloidal Transport -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Radiation Protection of the Environment: A Summary of Current Approaches for Assessment of Radionuclides in Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Radiation Protection of Wildlife -- 3 Environmental Transfer in Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 3.1 Atmospheric Deposition -- 3.2 Radionuclides in Soil -- 3.3 Radionuclide Transfer to Plants -- 3.3.1 Quantification of Transfer to Plants -- 3.4 Radionuclide Transfer to Terrestrial Animals -- 3.4.1 Gastrointestinal Absorption -- 3.4.2 Radionuclide Distribution in Animals -- 3.4.3 Quantification of Transfer to Animals -- 4 Dosimetry for Wildlife -- 4.1 Dose Rate Calculation -- 5 Effects on Wildlife -- 5.1 Environmental Radiological Protection -- 6 Benchmarks for Wildlife Assessment -- 6.1 The ICRP's Derived Consideration Reference Levels.

6.2 Alternative Approaches used in Radiological Risk Assessments -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Radiological Protection of Workers and the General Public -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Health Effects of Radiation -- 3 The Scientific Framework for the Protection of Humans -- 4 The ICRP's System of Protection -- 4.1 Justification -- 4.2 Optimisation -- 4.3 Dose Limits -- 4.4 Dose Constraints and Reference Levels -- 5 Radiation Protection in Practice in the UK -- 5.1 Radiation Exposure of Workers -- 5.2 Radiation Exposure of the Public -- 6 Experience Gained from Nuclear Accidents Outside the UK -- 7 Conclusions -- References -- Subject Index.