Using Oil Spill Dispersants on the Sea -- Copyright -- Acknowledgments -- Preface -- SCOPE OF STUDY -- METHOD OF STUDY -- Contents -- Executive Summary -- DO THEY DO ANY GOOD? -- DO THEY DO ANY HARM? -- RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USING DISPERSANTS -- SUGGESTED RESEARCH -- 1 Use of Oil Dispersants: History and Issues -- REASONS FOR TREATING OIL SPILLS -- Aesthetic and Ecological Damage -- Economic Damage -- Safety Hazards -- POTENTIAL SOURCES OF SPILLED OIL -- TREATMENT METHODS -- Mechanical Containment, Recovery, or Removal -- Shoreline Cleanup -- Natural Removal -- Other Countermeasures -- ROLE OF DISPERSANTS -- Rationale for Dispersant Use -- Sea and Weather Conditions -- Logistics -- Protection of Ecologically Sensitive Areas and Organisms -- Protection of Fisheries Resources -- Protection of Shoreline Amenities -- Dispersants as an Aid to Natural Cleanup -- HISTORY OF DISPERSANT USE -- The Torrey Canyon Spill -- Development of New Formulations -- Development of Equipment -- Case Studies -- ISSUES AND QUESTIONS -- Using Chemical Dispersants to Remove Oil from the Surface of the Water -- Defining Effectiveness -- Identifying Physical and Chemical Factors That Influence Effectiveness -- Factors Affecting Dispersant Application Techniques -- Factors Affecting Toxicity of Chemical Dispersants and Dispersed Oil -- 2 Chemistry and Physics of Dispersants and Dispersed Oil -- COMPOSITION OF DISPERSANTS -- Chemistry of Surfactants -- Current Dispersant Formulations -- Matching Dispersant Formulations with Oil Type for Increased Effectiveness -- Fate of Surfactants and Solvents in the Aqueous Environment -- FATE OF OIL SPILLED ON OPEN WATER -- Slick Thickness -- Slick Spreading -- Physical Processes of Dispersion Related to Water Motion -- Advection -- Turbulent Diffusion -- Oil Concentration Under Slicks -- Evaporative Loss of Volatile Hydrocarbons.

Photochemical Processes -- Mousse Formation -- BEHAVIOR OF OIL-DISPERSANT MIXTURES -- Criteria for Effective Dispersal -- Relation of Oil Composition to Dispersibility -- Effect of Oil Viscosity, Time, and Other Parameters on Dispersion -- Criticality of Timely Response -- Contact Time of Dispersant With Oil -- Effect of Dispersant on Slick Dynamics -- Behavior of Droplets and Resurfacing -- Oil Concentration Under Dispersed Slicks -- Evaporation and Weathering of Dispersed Oil -- Interaction of Dispersed Oil with Suspended Particulate Matter and Sediment -- OIL FATE AND DISPERSION MODELS -- Model Types -- Nonuniform Slick Thickness -- Advection and Diffusion -- Resurfacing -- Breaking Waves -- Integrated Approaches -- Mackay's Model -- Johansen's Model -- Model Validation -- Summary -- LABORATORY STUDIES OF EFFECTIVENESS -- Purpose of Laboratory Testing -- Critical Factors -- Need for Standard Testing Oils -- Advantages and Disadvantages of Testing Methods -- Labofina Test -- Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman Test -- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Test -- Flume or Wave-Tank Tests -- Summary -- NEED FOR RESEARCH -- 3 Toxicological Testing of Dispersants and Dispersed Oil -- OVERVIEW OF TOXICOLOGICAL TESTING -- Toxicological Testing Methods -- Dispersant Screening Procedures for Toxicity: Considerations -- Dispersant Screening Procedures in Canada, the United States, and Other Countries -- TOXICITY OF DISPERSANTS -- Acute Toxicity of Components -- Acute Toxicity of Formulations -- Factors Influencing Acute Toxicity -- Physicochemical Factors -- Biological Factors -- Phylogeny -- Life History Stage -- Physiological Factors -- Temperature Influence on Toxicity of Dispersants -- Sites and Physiology of Toxic Action -- Sublethal Effects -- Hazard Assessment of Dispersant Alone -- TOXICITY OF DISPERSED OIL -- Exposure Assessment.

Factors Affecting Comparative Toxicity -- Joint Toxicity -- LABORATORY STUDIES WITH DISPERSED OIL -- Phytoplankton -- Macroscopic Algae and Vascular Plants -- Zooplankton -- Protozoa -- Polychaetes -- Mollusca -- Echinoderms -- Ichthyoplankton -- Crustaceans -- Copepoda -- Decapoda -- Other Crustaceans -- Mollusks -- Comparison of Laboratory Studies and Field Studies with Measured Hydrocarbons -- Summary -- MICROBIAL DEGRADATION -- Laboratory Studies -- Mesoscale Studies -- Microbial Field Studies -- Summary -- SEABIRDS AND MARINE MAMMALS -- Seabirds -- Marine Mammals -- 4 Intermediate-Scale Experiments and Field Studies of Dispersants Applied to Oil Spills -- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL STUDIES -- Intermediate-Scale (Mesoscale) Studies -- American Petroleum Institute Research Spills -- Protecmar -- North Temperate and Arctic Tests -- Summary of Physical and Chemical Field Test Results -- BIOLOGICALLY ORIENTED MESOCOSM AND FIELD STUDIES -- Algal, Zooplankton, and Microbial Populations -- BIOS Arctic Studies -- Temperate Shallow Subtidal and Intertidal Habitats -- Intertidal Communities -- Salt Marshes -- Intertidal Areas -- Temperate Shallow Subtidal Studies: Long Cove and Sequim Bay -- Fish -- Tropical Shallow Intertidal and Subtidal Habitats -- Seagrasses -- Coral Reefs -- Mangroves -- SUMMARY -- 5 How Dispersants Are Used: Techniques, Logistics, Monitoring, and Application Strategies -- DESIGN OF DISPERSANT APPLICATION SYSTEMS -- Spray Systems -- Spray Droplet Size -- Dispersant Type -- Dosage Control -- Boats -- Aircraft -- Helicopters -- Hydrofoils and Hovercraft -- Boats Versus Aircraft -- Calibration -- MONITORING EFFECTIVENESS OF DISPERSANTS -- Remote Sensing -- Visual and Near-Visible Observation -- Infrared Sensing -- Microwave Sensors -- Radar -- Summary of Monitoring Techniques -- Regulatory Requirement -- STRATEGY OF DISPERSANT APPLICATIONS.

Dispersibility of Oil -- Spill Size and Configuration -- Aerial Spraying Strategy -- Other Strategies -- Command and Control -- Weather -- 6 Technical Basis of Decision Making -- FINDINGS FROM PREVIOUS CHAPTERS -- TECHNICAL QUESTIONS -- Response Options -- Environmental Considerations -- Other Factors That Affect Decision Making -- Weather Conditions -- ADVANCE PLANNING -- DECISION SCHEMES -- U.S. EPA Oil Spill Response Decision Tree -- API Decision Diagram -- SLR Dispersant Decision-Making Workbook -- State of Alaska Dispersant-Use Guidelines -- Comparison of Decision-Making Diagrams -- 7 Conclusions and Recommendations -- GENERAL CONCLUSIONS -- PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY -- BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS -- Toxicity of Dispersants -- Toxicity of Dispersed Oils -- Biodegradation -- ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS -- BIRDS AND MAMMALS -- TECHNIQUES, LOGISTICS, AND CONTINGENCY PLANNING -- References -- SOURCES OF UNPUBLISHED DATA AND PRIVATE COMMUNICATIONS -- Appendixes -- Appendix A Dispersant Products Information -- Appendix B Case Studies -- Torrey Canyon, 1967 -- Main Pass Block 41, Platform C, 1972 -- Eleni V, 1978 -- Hasbah 6, 1978 -- Ixtoc I, 1979-1980 -- Betelguese, 1979 -- Puerto Rican, 1984 -- Appendix C Conversion Factors -- Glossary and Acronyms -- Index.