AIR QUALITY AND STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSION CONTROL -- NOTICE -- Contents -- INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY -- SCOPE OF THE REPORT -- SUMMARY -- SUMMARY OF PART ONE: HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE AND SULFATES -- Sulfur Oxide Emissions and Abatement Techniques -- Reasons for Reducing Emissions of Sulfur Oxides -- Recommended Decisions and Decision Processes for Abatement Strategies -- The Value of Resolving Uncertainties on the Effects of Sulfur Oxide Emissions -- SUMMARY OF PART THREE: CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDES FROM STATIONARY SOURCES -- PART ONE HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE AND SULFATES -- CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION -- LITERATURE CITED -- CHAPTER TWO GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS -- ATMOSPHERIC SOURCES, INTERACTIONS AND SINKS -- METHODS OF STUDY OF SULFUR OXIDE HEALTH EFFECTS -- In Vitro Studies -- Animal Experiments -- Controlled Human-Exposure Experiments -- Epidemiologic Studies -- NORMAL LUNG FUNCTION IN RELATION TO SULFUR OXIDE HEALTH EFFECTS -- INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS IN RESPONSE -- LITERATURE CITED -- CHAPTER 3 BASIC BIOMEDICAL EFFECTS OF SULFUR OXIDES -- BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS OF SULFUR OXIDE TOXICITY -- PHYSIOLOGIC AND ANATOMIC EFFECTS OF SULFUR OXIDES -- LITERATURE CITED -- CHAPTER 4 HEALTH EFFECTS OF SULFUR OXIDES -- CHILDREN -- BRONCHIAL ASTHMA -- CHRONIC BRONCHITIS AND EMPHYSEMA -- Definition and Classification -- Mortality Studies -- Morbidity -- Respiratory Tract Infections -- Lung Cancer -- Quantitation -- LITERATURE CITED -- CHAPTER 5 ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS -- INTRODUCTION -- EFFECTS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE ON VEGETATION -- EFFECTS OF ACID PRECIPITATION ON TREES AND FOREST PRODUCTIVITY -- EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON AGRICULTURE -- EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON FISH AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS -- ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS -- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION -- LITERATURE CITED.

PART TWO STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING SULFUR-RELATED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS -- PART TWO IN BRIEF: STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING POWER PLANT EMISSIONS -- RELATION OF EMISSIONS TO AMBIENT AIR QUALITY AND CHEMISTRY OF PRECIPITATION -- EFFICIENT PRICING AND CONSERVATION -- MODIFICATION OF DEMAND FOR ELECTRIC POWER -- Generation of Byproduct Electricity in Industry -- Improved Efficiency of Equipment and Processes -- Shift of Space Heating Load from Oil and Gas to Coal as Primary Fuel -- FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION (FGD) -- Introduction -- Lime Scrubbing in the Unsaturated Mode -- Lime Scrubbing in the Supersaturated Mode -- Limestone Scrubbing in the Supersaturated Mode -- Limestone Scrubbing in the Unsaturated Mode -- Availability of Lime and Limestone Scrubber Technology -- Regenerative Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes -- Cost of Flue Gas Desulfurization -- Residuals Produced from Flue Gas Desulfurization -- Capability of Vendors and Utility Companies -- CONTROL OF AMBIENT SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS WITH TALL STACKS AND/OR INTERMITTENT CONTROL SYSTEMS -- Legal Background -- Assessment of Intermittent Control Systems (ICS) -- Performance -- Constraints on ICS Control Implementation -- Costs -- Secondary Environmental Impact -- Enforcement -- Public Policy Toward Tall Stack-ICS Control -- OTHER TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCTION OF SULFUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE -- ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES -- The Need to Consider Decisions on a Case by Case Basis -- Assessing the Value of Sulfur Oxide Emissions Reduction -- The Marginal Cost of Reducing Sulfur Oxide Emissions -- Results of the Analysis for Representative Plants -- The Value of Resolving Uncertainty -- Emissions Charges as an Instrument of Policy -- PART TWO: Section 1: Relationship of Emissions to Ambient Air Quality and Chemistry of Precipitation.

CHAPTER 6 THE RELATIONSHIP OF SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS TO SULFUR DIOXIDE AND SULFATE AIR QUALITY -- SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS -- SULFUR DIOXIDE AIR QUALITY -- The Relationship Between Sulfur Dioxide Air Quality and Emission Levels -- SULFATE AIR QUALITY -- The Relationship Between Sulfate Air Quality and Sulfur Oxide Emissions -- AMBIENT AIR QUALITY TRENDS FOR SULFUR DIOXIDE AND SULFATE -- Ambient Non-urban Trends -- THE AIR QUALITY IMPACT OF PROJECTED INCREASES IN POWER PLANT EMISSIONS -- LITERATURE CITED -- CHAPTER 7 SULFATES AND ACIDITY IN PRECIPITATION: THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO EMISSIONS AND REGIONAL TRANSPORT OF SULFUR OXIDES -- INTRODUCTION -- THE SULFUR CYCLE AND SULFATE DEPOSITION -- SULFATES IN PRECIPITATION IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA -- ACIDITY OF PRECIPITATION IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA -- THE RELATIONSHIP OF ACID PRECIPITATION TO EMISSIONS OF SULFUR AND NITROGEN OXIDES -- EVIDENCE FOR LONG RANGE TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF SULFUR OXIDES -- SUMMARY OF COMPARABLE OBSERVATIONS IN EUROPE -- PROJECTED CONSEQUENCES OF INCREASED EMISSIONS IN 1980 -- NEUTRALIZATION AND RUN-OFF OF ACIDIFIED PRECIPITATION -- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS -- FOOTNOTES -- LITERATURE CITED -- PART TWO Section 2: Techniques for Reducing Emissions from Power Plants -- CHAPTER 8 PRICING POLICY AND DEMAND FOR ELECTRICITY -- EFFICIENT PRICING AND CONSERVATION -- DEMAND PROJECTIONS AND ELASTICITY -- CHAPTER 9 EFFECTS OF IMPROVED FUEL UTILIZATION ON DEMAND FOR FUELS FOR ELECTRICITY -- INTRODUCTION -- PATTERNS OF FUEL SUPPLY AND DEMAND -- POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVED EFFECTIVENESS -- Industrial Sector -- Residential and Commercial Sector -- POTENTIAL FOR SHIFTING TO ALTERNATE SOURCES FOR SPACE HEATING -- EVALUATION OF CAPITAL COST FACTORS -- Costs Related to Improved Effectiveness -- Costs of Fuel Shifting for Space Heating -- SUMMARY OF DEMAND MODIFICATION ALTERNATIVES.

EFFECTIVENESS OF FUEL UTILIZATION IN A PROCESS -- LITERATURE CITED -- CHAPTER 10 SOME METHODS OF REDUCING SULFUR OXIDES FROM POWER PLANTS -- ASSESSMENT OF THE POTENTIALS FOR IMPROVED EFFICIENCY IN THE CONVERSION OF FUEL TO ELECTRICITY -- Summary -- Steam Turbine-Gas Turbine Combined Cycles (open cycle) -- Magnetohydrodynamics (open cycle) -- The Use of Binary Cycles or Working Fluids other than Steam -- SHIFT TO NUCLEAR GENERATION AS RAPIDLY AS POSSIBLE -- Summary -- SHIFT TO LOWER SULFUR FUELS -- Summary -- Natural Gas -- Petroleum and its products -- Coal -- REMOVE SULFUR FROM COAL BEFORE AND DURING COMBUSTION -- Summary -- Conventional Coal Cleaning Technology -- Advanced Coal Cleaning Technology -- Low-Sulfur, Low-Ash Coal -- Low-BTU Low-Sulfur Gas from Coal -- Low Sulfur Oil from Coal -- Fluidized Bed Combustion -- SHIFT FUEL CONSUMPTION FROM ELECTRICITY TO PIPELINE GRADE GAS MADE FROM COAL -- Summary -- FOOTNOTES -- CHAPTER 11 FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION -- 1.0 INTRODUCTION -- 2.0 LIME SCRUBBING FOR MEDIUM AND HIGH SULFUR COAL -- 2.01 Paddys Run -- 2.02 Mitsui Miike Industrial Boiler -- 2.03 Phillips Station -- 2.04 EPA's 10-MW Pilot Lime Scrubber -- 2.05 TVA's 1-MW Bench Lime Scrubber -- 2.06 EPA's 0.1-MW Bench Lime Scrubber -- 2.07 Conclusion for Medium Sulfur Coal of Low Chlorine Content -- 2.08 Conclusion for Scrubbing without Electrostatic Precipitator -- 2.09 Conclusion in Respect to Chemical Knowledge Base -- 2.10 Conclusion in Respect to Adequacy of Performance Comparisons -- 2.11 Conclusion in Respect to Confidence in Early Resolution of Question of Availability of Lime Scrubbers -- 2.12 Horizontal Scrubber at Mohave Station -- 2.13 Open versus Closed Water Loop -- 2.14 Lime Scrubbing in the Supersaturated Mode -- 2.15 Operation at a High Degree of Oxidation -- 3.0 LIMESTONE SCRUBBING FOR MEDIUM AND HIGH SULFUR COAL -- 3.01 Fulham Station.

3.02 Will County Station -- 3.03 LaCygne Station -- 3.04 EPA's 10-M Pilot Limestone Scrubber -- 3.05 EPA's 0.1-M Bench Limestone Scrubber -- 3.06 TVA's 1-MW Bench Limestone Scrubber -- 3.07 Paddys Run Operated as a Limestone Scrubber -- 3.08 Conclusion in Resepct to Commercial Availability of Three Modes of Operation -- 3.09 Conclusion in Respect to Technical Base for Design -- 3.10 Cholla Station -- 3.11 Open versus Closed Water Loop -- 3.12 Operation with Free Formation of Gypsum in Scrubber -- 4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS -- 4.01 Sludge Disposal -- 5.0 WATER POLLUTION -- 6.0 PARTICULATE REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES -- 7.0 COSTS OF FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION SYSTEMS -- 7.1 Retrofit Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems -- 8.0 INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS TO THE APPLICATION OF SULFUR OXIDE CONTROL SYSTEMS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- FOOTNOTES -- APPENDIX 11-A -- 1.0 CONTROL OF EMISSIONS OF SULFURIC ACID VAPOR AND MIST -- 1.01 Production of Sulfur Trioxide during Combustion -- 1.02 Conversion of Sulfur Trioxide to Sulfuric Acid Vapor -- 1.03 Levels of Sulfur Trioxide in Flue Gas from Oil Firing -- 1.04 Control of Sulfur Trioxide Emissions from Oil Firing -- 1.041 Low Excess Air -- 1.042 Scrubbing -- 1.043 Electrostatic Precipitation -- 1.044 Additives -- 1.045 Control of Small Combustion Equipment -- 1.05 Control of Sulfate Particulate Emissions from Coal Firing -- 1.051 Precipitation -- 1.052 Scrubbing -- 1.06 Conclusion in Respect to Emissions of Sulfuric Acid Vapor -- APPENDIX 11-B -- LITERATURE CITED -- CHAPTER 12 CONTROL OF AMBIENT SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS WITH TALL STACKS AND/OR INTERMITTENT CONTROL SYSTEMS -- INTRODUCTION -- TALL STACKS AND ICS PROGRAMS -- LEGAL BACKGROUND -- ASSESSMENT OF THE TECHNOLOGY -- Performance -- TVA-Paradise Steam Plant -- ASARCO-Tacoma Smelter -- ASARCO-El Paso Smelter -- Boston AIRMAP Network -- Recapitulation -- Availability.

Generating Unit Availability.