Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems : Science, Technology, and Public Policy.

Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Summary -- INTRODUCTION -- NATIONAL STRATEGY -- CONGRESS -- LONG-TERM, LARGE-SCALE, COORDINATED RESTORATION-PLANNING, EVALUATING, AND MONITORING -- LAKES -- RIVERS AND STREAMS -- WETLANDS -- EDUCATION AND TRAINING -- CONCLUSION -- REFERENCES -- 1 Overview -- STUDY BACKGROUND -- WHAT IS RESTORATION? -- STATUS OF AQUATIC RESOURCES IN THE UNITED STATES -- Restoration Initiative -- Conditions of Lakes -- Condition of Rivers and Streams -- Conditions of Wetlands -- NEED FOR NATIONAL AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION -- REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING -- 2 A Selective History of Changing Goals and Authority for Aquatic Ecosystem Management -- WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT -- NONSTRUCTURAL APPROACHES TO FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT -- FEDERALLY OWNED LANDS AND PUBLIC INCENTIVES FOR PRIVATE DECISIONS -- CHANGE AT CENTURY'S END -- Congressional Actions in the Mid-1980s -- Congressional Initiatives in the 1989-1990 Session -- EMERGING ROLE OF THE STATES -- REFERENCES -- 3 Planning and Evaluating Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration -- INTRODUCTION -- RESTORATION PROJECT PLANNING -- Project Schedule -- Project Scale -- Genetic Issues -- Human Influences -- PURPOSE OF EVALUATION -- SELECTING ASSESSMENT CRITERIA AND SYNTHESIZING DATA -- Assessment Criteria -- STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS -- FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS -- EMERGENT PROPERTIES -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING -- 4 Lakes -- OVERVIEW -- INTRODUCTION-IMPORTANCE OF LAKES -- STRESSES ON LAKES -- Classes of Stresses and Their Effects -- EUTROPHICATION -- HYDROLOGICAL AND RELATED PHYSICAL CHANGES -- SEDIMENTATION -- EXOTIC SPECIES -- ACIDIFICATION -- CONTAMINATION BY TOXIC SUBSTANCES -- Responses to Stresses-Status of U.S. Lakes -- OVERVIEW -- TROPHIC STATE -- ACIDIFICATION -- TOXIC SUBSTANCES -- OTHER STRESSES.

LAKE RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT -- Definitions -- RESTORATION USING THE CONCEPT OF ECOREGIONS -- Criteria for Successful Restoration and Measures of Success -- ECOLOGICAL CRITERIA -- WATER QUALITY AND HUMAN USE CRITERIA -- FEDERAL AND STATE PROGRAMS FOR LAKE RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT -- Federal Programs -- State Programs -- Evaluation of Past Restoration Efforts: Need for Monitoring Data -- Need for Coordination of Management Efforts -- LAKE RESTORATION TECHNOLOGY -- Overview -- Eutrophication -- CONTROL OF ALGAL BLOOMS -- Nutrient Source Reduction -- Dilution -- In-Lake Methods to Reduce Phosphorus Concentrations and Cycling -- Management of Symptoms -- CONTROL OF AQUATIC MACROPHYTES -- Overview -- Biological Agents -- Water-Level Drawdown -- Harvesting -- Herbicides -- LOW DISSOLVED OXYGEN -- Hypolimnetic Aeration -- Artificial Circulation -- Winter Aeration -- Excess Sediment -- Exotic Species -- Acidification -- Contaminants -- INTEGRATED AQUATIC SYSTEMS -- NEEDS IN LAKE RESTORATION -- Needs in Federal Lakes Programs -- Project Selection and Design -- Need for Integration of Management Programs -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Use the Ecoregion Concept to Restore Lakes -- Research Needed -- Education and Training -- REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING -- 5 Rivers and Streams -- OVERVIEW -- INTRODUCTION-IMPORTANCE OF RIVERS AND STREAMS -- CONCEPTS RELATED TO MANAGEMENT AND RESTORATION OF RIVERS AND STREAMSCONCEPTS RELATED TO MANAGEMENT A... -- Flow and Retention -- Openness -- Dynamism -- Patchiness -- Resistance and Resilience -- THE RIVERINE-RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEM -- Integrative Concepts -- Ecoregions as Applied to Rivers and Streams -- STRESSES ON RIVERS AND STREAMS -- Point Sources of Pollution -- Nonpoint Sources of Pollution -- Overgrazing -- Drainage and Channelization -- Suspended Sediment -- Sediment Deposition -- Dams.

Alteration of Flow Patterns -- Boat Traffic -- Acid -- Fishing -- FLUVIAL RESTORATION -- Objectives -- Priorities -- Techniques -- NONSTRUCTURAL TECHNIQUES -- Legislative and Administrative Approaches -- In-Stream Flow -- Flow Regime -- Floodplain Management -- Establishment of Greenways -- Fencing -- STRUCTURAL TECHNIQUES FOR FLUVIAL RESTORATION -- Species-Centered Restoration -- Ecosystem Restoration -- Constraints on Fluvial Restoration -- CONCEPTUAL LIMITATIONS -- INADEQUATE INFORMATION BASE -- LACK OF APPROPRIATE EXPERTISE -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Establish Reference Reaches for River and Stream Restoration -- In-Stream Flow Requirements and Allocations -- Land Use Management -- Event-Triggered Sampling and Monitoring -- Guiding Citizen Participation in Restoration Projects -- National Rivers and Streams Inventory -- Training and Education -- REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING -- 6 Wetlands -- OVERVIEW -- Definition of Wetlands -- Historical Perspectives on Wetlands -- Functional Value of Wetlands -- FOOD CHAIN SUPPORT -- HYDROLOGIC FUNCTIONS -- WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT FUNCTIONS -- HUMAN VALUES -- LOSS OF WETLANDS -- Damages to Wetlands -- Effects of Cumulative Impacts -- Potential Impacts of Global Climate Change and Sea Level Rise -- RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES -- Wetland Settings and Their Effects -- COASTAL-ESTUARINE WETLANDS -- STREAM AND RIVERINE WETLANDS -- DEPRESSIONAL WETLANDS -- LARGE FRESHWATER WETLANDS WITH POOR DRAINAGE -- RESTORATION OF FORMER WETLANDS IN AGRICULTURAL USE -- Federal Water Projects -- PROGRAMS FOR WETLAND RESTORATION -- Section 404, Clean Water Act -- Conservation Reserve and Agricultural Wetland Reserve Programs -- Farmers Home Administration and Resolution Trust Corporation Lands -- STATUS OF WETLAND RESTORATION RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY -- Importance of Setting Goals for Functional Value.

Techniques for Restoring Wetlands -- REESTABLISHING RIVER FLOW -- RESTORING FLOOD REGIMES -- HALTING DRAINAGE -- REESTABLISHING TOPOGRAPHY -- CONTROLLING CONTAMINANT LOADINGS -- REESTABLISHING BIOTA -- CONSTRAINTS ON ACHIEVING RESTORATION GOALS -- Degree of Disturbance to the Site and Its Landscape -- RELATIVELY UNDISTURBED SITE -- HIGHLY DISTURBED SITES -- SITES WITH INTERMEDIATE DISTURBANCE -- Ecological Constraints -- Biological Constraints -- CONSTRAINTS ON THREATENED SPECIES -- CONSTRAINTS IMPOSED BY EXOTIC SPECIES -- Institutional Constraints -- REGULATORY VERSUS NONREGULATORY CONTEXT -- Problems Encountered In Restoration Projects -- Summary -- CONTROVERSIES ABOUT THE SUCCESS OF RESTORATION PROJECTSCONTROVERSIES ABOUT THE SUCCESS OF RESTORATION... -- Vested Interests -- Different Standards of Evaluation -- Duration of Evaluation Period -- NEEDS -- Need for Wetland Restoration -- Setting a Wetland Restoration Goal -- Need for Adaptive Management -- Need for Improved Assessment -- Need for High Standards in Assessing Functional Equivalency (Restored Versus Natural Wetlands) -- Need to Accelerate the Restoration Process -- Need for Research -- APPLIED RESEARCH -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Planning -- Research Needs and Techniques -- REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING -- 7 Intergrated Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration -- INTRODUCTION -- INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS TO INTEGRATED AQUATIC RESTORATION -- IMPORTANCE OF INTEGRATED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION TO WILDLIFE -- APPROPRIATE SCALE FOR AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION -- USE OF HISTORICAL RECORDS IN RECONSTRUCTING WATERSHEDS -- Interpretation of Historical Data for Restoration Purposes -- CONCLUSION -- REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING -- 8 A National Restoration Strategy: Basic Elements and Related Recommendations -- INTRODUCTION -- NATIONAL RESTORATION GOALS.

1. A National Restoration Strategy Should Be Directed Toward Broad-Based and Measurable Goals -- 2. A National Aquatic Ecosystem Assessment Process Should Monitor the Achievement of the Nation' Goals ... -- PRINCIPLES FOR PRIORITY SETTING AND DECISION MAKING -- 3. Policies and Programs for Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Should Emphasize a Landscape Perspective -- 4. Restoration Policies and Individual Restoration Projects Should Be Designed and Executed According ... -- 5. Evaluation and Ranking of Restoration Alternatives Should Be Based on an Assessment of Opportunity ... -- POLICY AND PROGRAM REDESIGN FOR FEDERAL AGENCIES -- 6. The Definition of Restoration Used Throughout This Report Should Be Incorporated Into All Appropriate ... -- 7. A National Restoration Strategy Should Allocate Leadership to the Federal Government for Landscape ... -- 8. The Federal Government Should Initiate an Interagency and Intergovernmental Process to Develop a ... -- 9. The Development of a Unified National Program for Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Should Be Facilitated ... -- 10. Current and Proposed Federal Programs Should Exploit Available Opportunities for Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration -- CLEAN LAKES PROGRAM -- EPA CONSTRUCTION GRANTS PROGRAM -- FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM -- Federal Water Resource Development -- NOAA Water Resources Forecasting Services (WARFS) -- INNOVATION IN FINANCING AND IN USE OF LAND AND WATER MARKETS -- 11. Congress Should Establish a National Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Trust Fund -- 12. There Should be Increased Reliance on Local Environmental Restoration Boards for Program Planning ... -- 13. Congress Should Allow States and Local Governments to Trade Federal Funds Designated for Development ... -- 14. Congress Should Authorize Expansion of the Agricultural Wetland Reserve Program with Funds from ...

15. The U.S. Government Should Encourage Water Pollution Credit Trading Programs to Finance Aquatic ...