Cover -- Sports Biomechanics: Reducing Injury and Improving Performance -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Permissions -- Part One Biomechanics of Sports Injury -- Introduction -- 1 Causes of injury and the properties of materials -- 1.1 Causes of injury -- 1.2 Biological and other materials -- 1.3 Response of a material to load -- 1.3.1 Stress and strain -- 1.3.2 Elastic modulus and related properties -- 1.3.3 Plasticity and strain energy -- 1.3.4 Toughness and crack prevention -- 1.3.5 Hardness -- 1.3.6 Creep -- 1.3.7 Fatigue failure -- 1.3.8 Non-homogeneity, anisotropy and viscoelasticity -- 1.3.9 Stress concentration -- 1.4 Bone -- 1.4.1 Structure and composition -- 1.4.2 Bone: loading and biomechanical properties -- 1.5 Cartilage -- 1.5.1 Structure and composition -- 1.5.2 Biomechanical properties -- 1.6 Muscle properties and behaviour -- 1.6.1 Muscle elasticity and contractility -- 1.6.2 Maximum force and muscle activation -- 1.6.3 Mechanical stiffness -- 1.6.4 The stretch-shortening cycle -- 1.7 Ligament and tendon properties -- 1.8 Factors affecting properties of biological tissue -- 1.8.1 Immobilisation and disuse -- 1.8.2 Age and sex -- 1.8.3 Exercise and training -- 1.8.4 Warm-up -- 1.9 Summary -- 1.10 Exercises -- 1.11 References -- 1.12 Further reading -- 2 Injuries in sport: how the body behaves under load -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Bone injuries -- 2.2.1 Type of fracture -- 2.2.2 Magnitude of load -- 2.2.3 Load rate -- 2.2.4 Bone properties -- 2.3 Joint and soft tissue injuries -- 2.3.1 Articular cartilage -- 2.3.2 Ligaments -- 2.3.3 Muscle-tendon unit -- 2.4 Sports injuries to joints and associated tissues -- 2.4.1 The pelvis and the hip joint -- 2.4.2 The knee -- 2.4.3 The ankle and foot -- 2.4.4 The wrist and hand -- 2.4.5 The elbow -- 2.4.6 The shoulder -- 2.4.7 The head, back and neck.

2.5 Genetic factors in sports injury -- 2.5.1 Sex, age and growth -- 2.5.2 Bony alignment -- 2.6 Fitness and training status and injury -- 2.7 Summary -- 2.8 Exercises -- 2.9 References -- 2.10 Further reading -- Appendix 2.1 Musculoskeletal injury: some useful definitions -- 3 The effects of sports equipment and technique on injury -- 3.1 Sports surfaces -- 3.1.1 Introduction -- 3.1.2 Characteristics of sports surfaces -- 3.1.3 Specific sports surfaces -- 3.1.4 Biomechanical assessment of surfaces -- 3.1.5 Injury aspects of sports surfaces -- 3.2 Footwear: biomechanics and injury aspects -- 3.2.1 Introduction -- 3.2.2 Biomechanical requirements of a running shoe -- 3.2.3 The structure of a running shoe -- 3.2.4 Footwear and injury -- 3.2.5 Impact and the running shoe -- 3.2.6 Running shoes and rearfoot control -- 3.3 Other sports and exercise equipment and injury -- 3.3.1 The head and neck -- 3.3.2 The upper extremity -- 3.3.3 The lower extremity -- 3.3.4 Alpine skiing: release bindings -- 3.4 Musculoskeletal injury-technique aspects -- 3.4.1 Introduction -- 3.4.2 The head and trunk -- 3.4.3 The upper extremity -- 3.4.4 The lower extremity -- 3.5 Summary -- 3.6 Exercises -- 3.7 References -- 3.8 Further reading -- Appendix 3.1 Artificial surfaces -- Appendix 3.2 Other surface characteristics -- 4 Calculating the loads -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Forces acting on a body segment in two dimensions -- 4.2.1 Static joint and muscle forces for a single segment with one muscle -- 4.2.2 Dynamic joint and muscle forces for a single segment with one muscle -- 4.2.3 Assumptions underlying the above models -- 4.2.4 Forces acting on a body segment with more than one muscle-the indeterminacy problem -- 4.2.5 Planar joint reaction forces and moments for a single segment -- 4.2.6 Planar joint reaction forces and moments for segment chains.

4.2.7 Joint reaction forces and moments in multiple-segment systems -- 4.3 Determination of muscle forces from inverse dynamics -- 4.3.1 Solving the indeterminacy (or redundancy) problem -- 4.3.2 Inverse optimisation -- 4.3.3 Use of EMG to estimate muscle force -- 4.4 Determination of ligament and bone forces -- 4.5 An example of the estimation of a load causing traumatic injury -- 4.5.1 Patellar ligament rupture -- 4.5.2 Concluding comments -- 4.6 Summary -- 4.7 Exercises -- 4.8 References -- 4.9 Further reading -- Part Two Biomechanical Improvement of Sports Performance -- Introduction -- 5 Aspects of biomechanical analysis of sports performance -- 5.1 Principles of coordinated movement -- 5.1.1 How is movement controlled? -- 5.1.2 Structural analysis of movement -- 5.2 Biomechanical principles of coordinated movement -- 5.2.1 Universal principles -- 5.2.2 Principles of partial generality -- 5.3 Temporal and phase analysis -- 5.3.1 Phase analysis of ballistic movements -- 5.3.2 Phase analysis of running -- 5.3.3 Phase analysis of other activities -- 5.3.4 Concluding comments -- 5.4 Kinesiological analysis of sports movements -- 5.4.1 An approach to kinesiological analysis -- 5.4.2 A formalised kinesiological analysis procedure -- 5.4.3 The analysis chart -- 5.4.4 Examples -- 5.5 Some limitations to kinesiological analysis -- 5.5.1 What muscles really do -- 5.5.2 Open and closed kinetic chains -- 5.6 Summary -- 5.7 Exercises -- 5.8 References -- 5.9 Further reading -- 6 Biomechanical optimisation of sports techniques -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 The trial and error approach -- 6.3 Statistical modelling -- 6.3.1 Types of statistical model -- 6.3.2 Limitations of statistical modelling -- 6.3.3 Theory-based statistical modelling -- 6.3.4 Hierarchical model of a vertical jump -- 6.4 Mathematical modelling -- 6.4.1 Simulation -- 6.4.2 Optimisation.

6.4.3 Conclusions-future trends -- 6.5 Summary -- 6.6 Exercises -- 6.7 References -- 6.8 Further reading -- 7 Mathematical models of sports motions -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Optimal javelin release -- 7.2.1 The javelin flight model -- 7.2.2 Simulation -- 7.2.3 Optimisation -- 7.2.4 Sensitivity analysis -- 7.2.5 Simulation evaluation -- 7.3 Simple models of the sports performer -- 7.3.1 Introduction -- 7.3.2 The thrower model -- 7.3.3 Simulation, optimisation and sensitivity analysis -- 7.3.4 Simulation evaluation -- 7.3.5 Concluding comments -- 7.4 More complex models of the sports performer -- 7.4.1 Introduction -- 7.4.2 Linked segment models of aerial movement -- 7.4.3 Hanavan's human body model -- 7.4.4 Hatze's anthropometric model -- 7.4.5 Yeadon's mathematical inertia model of the human body -- 7.4.6 Conclusions -- 7.5 Models of skeletal muscle -- 7.5.1 Introduction -- 7.5.2 The computed torque approach -- 7.5.3 Muscle models -- 7.5.4 A more comprehensive model of skeletal muscle -- 7.5.5 Evaluation and uses of Hatze's model of skeletal muscle -- 7.5.6 Concluding comments -- 7.6 Summary -- 7.7 Exercises -- 7.8 References -- 7.9 Further reading -- 8 Feedback of results to improve performance -- 8.1 The importance of feedback -- 8.2 Technique assessment models and their limitations in feedback -- 8.2.1 Live demonstrations -- 8.2.2 Serial recordings -- 8.2.3 Parallel representations -- 8.2.4 Textbook technique -- 8.2.5 Graphical (diagrammatic) models -- 8.2.6 Computer simulation models -- 8.2.7 Analysis charts -- 8.2.8 Concluding comments -- 8.3 The role of technique training -- 8.3.1 Learning or relearning a technique -- 8.3.2 How to plan technique training -- 8.4 Information feedback and motor learning -- 8.5 Use of computer-based feedback -- 8.5.1 Overview -- 8.5.2 The uses of computer simulation and optimization in feedback -- 8.6 Summary.

8.7 Exercises -- 8.8 References -- 8.9 Further reading -- Author index -- Subject index.