Cover -- Half-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- 1 Introduction -- I INTRODUCTORY REMARKS -- SOME ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF BILINGUALISM -- II BILINGUALISM -- III ÉLITE AND SUB-ÉLITE BILINGUALISM: ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE AND ITS SHORTCOMINGS -- III.I Non-élite bilingualism -- IV ROMANS, GREEKS AND OTHERS AS LANGUAGE LEARNERS -- V CODE-SWITCHING, INTERFERENCE AND BORROWING -- VI A FURTHER NOTE ON LOAN-WORDS -- VII SOURCES OF INFORMATION -- VII.1 Bilingual texts -- VII.2 Transliterated texts -- VII.2.1 Latin in Greek script: introduction -- VII.2.2 The use of Greek script for Latin as a matter of choice -- VII.2.3 Latin written in Greek script by possible illiterates in Latin script -- VII.2.4 Some other scripts -- VII.3 Mixed-language texts -- VII.4 Texts which implicitly reflect a bilingual situation -- VII.4.1 Orthographic interference and alphabet-switching -- VII.4.2 Translations of clichés, formulae, etc. -- VIII THE AUTHORSHIP OF INSCRIPTIONS -- IX PIDGINS AND 'REDUCED' LANGUAGES -- X SOME CONCLUDING REMARKS -- APPENDIX: ATTITUDES TO THE GREEK ACCENT IN LATIN -- 2 Languages in contact with Latin -- I INTRODUCTION -- II OSCAN, UMBRIAN, VENETIC, MESSAPIC -- II.1 Testimonia and literary evidence -- II.2 Bilingual texts -- II.3 'Mixed language' texts, 'Latinised' Oscan and 'Oscanised' Latin (?) -- II.3.1 Conclusions -- II.4 Bilingual areas: some remarks about Pompeii -- II.5 Greek and Italic -- II.6 Conclusions -- II.6.1 Latin 'influences' Italic -- II.6.2 Italic 'influences' Latin -- III ETRUSCAN -- III.1 'Roman' Etruscan -- III.2 Loan-words and calques -- III.3 Greeks and Etruscans -- III.4 Etruscan and Italic -- III.5 Etruscan and Latin: anecdotal evidence -- III.6 Inscriptions -- III.7 The prophecy of Vegoia -- III.8 Conclusions -- IV CELTIC (GAULISH).

IV.1 Introduction: loan-words and interpreters -- IV.2 Gaulish and bilingual texts -- IV.3 Interference from Gaulish -- IV.4 Marcellus of Bordeaux -- IV.5 The spindle whorls from eastern France -- IV.6 Conclusions -- V PUNIC -- V.1 Introduction -- V.2 The early period -- V.3 Coins -- V.4 Sardinia -- V.5 Africa -- V.5.1 Bilingual texts and names -- V.5.2 Punic borrowing from and imitation of Latin -- V.5.3 Miscellaneous -- V.5.4 Conclusions -- V.6 The 'Latino-Punic' inscriptions -- V.6.1 Conclusions -- V.7 Bu Njem -- V.8 Later literary evidence -- V.9 Punic (Phoenician)-Greek code-switching or language mixing -- V.10 Conclusions -- VI LIBYAN, BERBER -- VII ARAMAIC -- VII.1 Introduction -- VII.2 Palmyrenes abroad -- VII.3 Palmyra -- VII.4 Nabataean -- VII.5 Native speakers of Latin and contact with Aramaic -- VII.6 Conclusions -- VIII HEBREW -- IX GERMANIC -- X HISPANIC LANGUAGES -- XI EGYPTIAN -- XII GETIC AND SARMATIAN -- XIII THRACIAN -- XIV CONCLUSIONS -- XIV.1 Regional Latin and language change -- XIV.2 Code-switching -- XIV.3 Language death and Romanisation -- XIV.4 Bilingual inscriptions -- XIV.5 Language learning -- XIV.6 Accommodation -- 3 Code-switching -- I INTRODUCTION -- II CODE-SWITCHING AND IMPERFECT COMPETENCE -- III CICERO'S LETTERS -- III.1 Introduction -- III.2 Critical terms -- Characterisations of Cicero's words in the letters -- Characterisations of the words of Atticus or other correspondents -- Characterisations of Cicero's other writings -- Characterisations of speech -- III.3 Code-switching as a form of coding or exclusion -- III.4 Code-switching as distancing or euphemism -- III.5 Code-switching and proverbial or fixed expressions -- III.6 Code-switching and the mot juste -- III.7 Code-switching and medical terminology -- III.8 Special cases: the evocativeness of code-switching.

III.9 The chronology of code-switching in Cicero -- III.10 Some concluding remarks -- IV SOLIDARITY: SOME INSCRIPTIONAL AND OTHER EVIDENCE -- IV.1 Accommodation as an act of solidarity and as a form of disparagement -- V IDENTITY -- V.1 Identity: language shift across several generations -- V.2 Identity: code-switching and names -- V.3 Identity: code-switching in names in some other languages -- V.4 Identity: filiations -- V.5 Identity: official titles -- VI CODE-SWITCHING, LANGUAGE CHOICE AND POWER -- VI.1 Bilingual transcripts of hearings -- VI.2 Code-switching and dates -- VI.3 Power: code-switching and passwords and the like -- VII A SPECIAL CASE: CODE-SWITCHING IN THE SUBSCRIPTIO OF LETTERS -- VIII CODE-SWITCHING AND THE EXPRESSION OF BUREAUCRATIC INFORMATION: SOME REMARKS ON 'DIGLOSSIA' AND THE LANGUAGE OF AUTHORITY -- IX CODE-SWITCHING AND THE EVOCATION OF THE EXOTIC -- X UNMOTIVATED CODE-SWITCHING? -- XI FURTHER INSTITUTIONALISED CODE-SWITCHING -- XII CONCLUSIONS -- XII.1 Code-switching and the notion of the 'mixed language' -- XII.2 The significance of funerary inscriptions -- XII.3 Code-switching and markedness -- XII.4 Code-switching and social intention: power and solidarity/accommodation -- XII.5 'Retention': some further observations about the code-switching of Roman Greeks -- XII.6 Code-switching and gender -- 4 Bilingualism, linguistic diversity and language change -- I INTRODUCTION -- II BORROWING AND ITS DIVERSITY -- III INTERFERENCE AGAIN: A PROBLEM OF INTERPRETATION -- IV SECOND-LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND REGIONAL VARIATION IN LANGUAGE: SOME INTRODUCTORY REMARKS -- V BORROWING AND INTERFERENCE: TYPES AND CASE STUDIES -- V.1 Phonetic interference: accent -- V.1.1 Greeks' Latin: some evidence concerning phonetic interference and accent -- V.1.2 Some other accents -- V.1.3 Phonetic interference: Celtic interference in Gallic Latin.

V.2 Vocabulary -- V.2.1 'Regional' loan-words -- V.2.2 Greek -- V.2.3 Germanic -- V.2.4 Hispanic languages -- V.2.5 Punic and Libyan -- V.2.6 Celtic -- V.2.7 Miscellaneous -- V.2.8 The use of regional words as a marker of regional identity -- V.2.9 Latin loan-words as regionalisms in Greek -- V.2.10 Conclusions -- V.2.11 Calques and loan-shifts -- V.2.12 Translations of idioms -- V.3 Morphology -- V.3.1 Greeks' Latin: dative and genitive singular of female first-declension names in Latin -- V.3.1.1 The genitive in -aes -- V.3.1.2 Venusia and convergence -- V.3.1.3 A new Latin suffix determined partly by contact with Greek -- V.3.1.4 The type Marciane -- V.3.1.5 Some concluding remarks -- V.3.2 Genitive plural -- V.3.3 Nominative singular -- V.3.4 Accusative plural -- V.3.5 Suffixation: some Latinate suffixes in the Greek of Egypt -- V.4 Syntax -- V.4.1 Roman Greek again: the Greek dative -- V.4.1.1 A use of the dative in the Greek translations of senatus consulta -- V.4.1.2 The dative in consular dates -- V.4.1.3 The dative of duration of time -- V.4.1.4 Another use of the dative -- V.4.1.5 Conclusions -- V.4.2 Greeks' Latin: the genitive (of time) in Latin -- V.4.3 The genitive of filiation in Latin -- V.4.4 African Latin: the use of the vocative for nominative -- V.4.5 The definite article: Romans' Greek and Roman Latin -- V.4.6 Bilingualism and the system of gender -- VI CONCLUSIONS -- VI.1 Contact-induced linguistic change of the creative type -- VI.2 Factors facilitating linguistic change in situations of language contact -- VI.3 Bilingualism and the diversity of Latin -- VI.4 The limitations of language contact as a determinant of language change -- 5 Latin in Egypt -- I INTRODUCTION -- I.1 Latin, Greek and Egyptian -- I.2 Some questions -- I.3 Diglossia -- I.4 The availability of scribes as a determinant of language choice.

II THE EVIDENCE FROM EGYPT -- III LANGUAGE CHOICE AS AN EXPRESSION OF POWER OR ACT OF ACCOMMODATION -- IV LATIN AS A LANGUAGE OF POWER -- IV.1 Greek and Latin inscriptions at the Colossus of Memnon -- IV.2 The Abinnaeus archive -- IV.2.1 P. Oxy. LXIII.4381 -- IV.3 The past and some miscellaneous texts -- IV.4 Bilingual transcripts of hearings -- IV.5 Latin as a language of power: the citizenship -- IV.6 The citizenship: some mixed-language official documents from Egypt -- IV.7 Some bilingual inscriptions: building inscriptions -- V ACCOMMODATION: INTRODUCTION -- V.1 Accommodation in the religious sphere -- V.2 Pilgrimage and tourist sites -- V.3 Kalabcha (Talmis, the temple of Mandulis) -- V.4 The Syringes of Thebes -- V.5 Dakka (Pselchis) -- V.6 Inscriptions on the route from Coptos to Quseir -- V.7 Deir el-Bahari -- V.8 Conclusions -- VI FURTHER ASPECTS OF DIGLOSSIA IN EGYPT -- VI.1 Mundane practical bilingualism: linguistic competence as a determinant of language choice -- VI.2 The archive of Tiberianus and the roles of Greek and Latin -- VI.3 Conclusion: diglossia in Egypt -- VII LANGUAGE USE IN THE ARMY IN EGYPT -- VII.1 Latin as the 'official' language of the army? -- VII.2 Latin as a super-high language in the army -- VII.2.1 Latin and the transmission of orders -- VII.2.2 Receipts -- VII.2.3 Diplomata -- VII.2.4 Dedications to emperors -- VII.2.5 Some epitaphs -- VII.3 Evidence for the learning of Latin in the army -- VIII THE LEARNING OF LATIN IN EGYPT -- IX CONCLUSIONS -- APPENDIX: THE TRILINGUAL INSCRIPTION OF GALLUS -- 6 Bilingualism at Delos -- I THE COMMUNITY OF NEGOTIATORES AT DELOS -- II LINGUISTIC INTEGRATION OF ROMANS/ITALIANS ON DELOS -- III ITALICI…AND IDENTITY: A TYPE OF INSCRIPTION -- III.1 Formulaic structure -- III.2… -- III.3 Accusative of the honorand -- III.4 Gemination of vowels -- IV FURTHER ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE CHOICE.

IV.1 Dedications to Roman dignitaries.