Cover -- Half-title -- Series-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Dedication -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Basic principles of the ionosphere -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.1.1 The ionosphere and radio-wave propagation -- 1.1.2 Why the ionosphere is so different at high latitude -- 1.2 The vertical structure of the atmosphere -- 1.2.1 Nomenclature -- 1.2.2 Hydrostatic equilibrium in the atmosphere -- 1.2.3 The exosphere -- 1.2.4 The temperature profile of the neutral atmosphere -- Sources -- Losses -- Transport -- 1.2.5 Composition -- Major species -- Minor species -- 1.3 Physical aeronomy -- 1.3.1 Introduction -- 1.3.2 The Chapman production function -- 1.3.3 Principles of chemical recombination -- 1.3.4 Vertical transport -- Diffusion -- The effect of a neutral-air wind -- 1.4 The main ionospheric layers -- 1.4.1 Introduction -- 1.4.2 The E and F1 regions -- Aeronomy -- The night E layer -- Sporadic-E -- The F1 ledge -- 1.4.3 The D region -- Aeronomy -- Diurnal behavior -- Radio absorption -- 1.4.4 The F2 region and the protonosphere -- The peak of the F2 layer -- The protonosphere -- 1.4.5 Anomalies of the F2 region -- The phenomena -- Reaction rates -- Composition -- Winds -- The plasma temperature and the protonosphere -- 1.4.6 The effects of the sunspot cycle -- 1.4.7 The F-region ionospheric storm -- 1.5 The electrical conductivity of the ionosphere -- 1.5.1 Introduction -- 1.5.2 Conductivity in the absence of a magnetic field -- 1.5.3 The effect of a magnetic field -- 1.5.4 The height variation of conductivity -- 1.5.5 Currents -- 1.6 Acoustic-gravity waves and traveling ionospheric disturbances -- 1.6.1 Introduction -- 1.6.2 Theory -- 1.6.3 Traveling ionospheric disturbances -- 1.6.4 The literature -- 1.7 References and bibliography -- 1.2 The Vertical structure of the atmosphere -- 1.3 Physical aeronomy -- 1.4 The main ionospheric layers.

1.5 The electrical conductivity of the ionosphere -- 1.6 Acoustic-gravity waves and traveling ionospheric disturbances -- General reading on the topics of Chapter 1 -- Books -- Conference reports -- Chapter 2 Geophysical phenomena influencing the high-latitude ionosphere -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The magnetosphere -- 2.2.1 The geomagnetic field -- 2.2.2 The solar wind -- 2.2.3 The magnetopause -- 2.2.4 The magnetosheath and the shock -- 2.2.5 The polar cusps -- 2.2.6 The magnetotail -- 2.3 Particles in the magnetosphere -- 2.3.1 Principal particle populations -- 2.3.2 The plasmasphere -- 2.3.3 The plasma sheet -- 2.3.4 Trapped particles -- 2.3.5 The ring current -- 2.3.6 Birkeland currents -- 2.4 The dynamics of the magnetosphere -- 2.4.1 Circulation patterns -- 2.4.2 Field merging -- 2.4.3 Magnetospheric electric fields -- 2.4.4 The dynamics of the plasmasphere -- 2.5 Magnetic storms -- 2.5.1 Introduction -- 2.5.2 The classical magnetic storm and the Dst index -- 2.5.3 Magnetic bays at high latitude -- the auroral electrojet -- 2.5.4 Magnetic indices -- 2.5.5 Great magnetic storms and a case history -- The storm of 13 March 1989 -- Magnetic effects -- The aurora, magnetosphere, and solar wind -- The ionosphere -- Satellite drag -- Electric-power distribution -- 2.5.6 Wave phenomena of the magnetosphere -- Hydromagnetic and magnetosonic waves -- Micropulsations -- Instabilities -- 2.6 Ionization by energetic particles -- 2.6.1 Electrons -- 2.6.2 Bremsstrahlung X-rays -- 2.6.3 Protons -- 2.7 References and bibliography -- 2.2 The magnetosphere -- 2.3 Particles in the magnetosphere -- 2.4 Dynamics of the magnetosphere -- 2.5 Magnetic storms -- 2.6 Ionization by energetic particles -- General reading on the topics of Chapter 2 -- Books -- Conference reports -- Chapter 3 Fundamentals of terrestrial radio propagation -- 3.1 Introduction.

3.2 Electromagnetic radiation -- 3.2.1 Basics of line-of-sight propagation in vacuo -- 3.2.2 Principles of radar -- 3.2.3 The significance of the refractive index -- A simple propagating wave -- The refractive index -- Propagation in a lossy medium -- Conductivity -- Evanescent waves -- 3.2.4 Interactions between radio waves and matter -- 3.3 Propagation through the neutral atmosphere -- 3.3.1 The refractivity of the neutral atmosphere -- 3.3.2 Terrain effects -- 3.3.3 Noise and interference -- 3.4 Ionospheric propagation -- 3.4.1 Magnetoionic theory -- The Appleton equation -- Polarization -- 3.4.2 Reflection of radio waves from an ionospheric layer -- Reflection at vertical incidence -- 3.4.3 Relations between oblique and vertical incidence -- 3.4.4 Trans-ionospheric propagation -- Phase effects -- The Faraday effect -- Absorption -- 3.4.5 Principles of radio scintillation -- Introduction -- Diffraction by a thin screen of weak irregularities and the concept of the angular spectrum -- Fresnel-zone effects -- Indices and simple statistics of scintillation -- 3.4.6 Propagation involving reflection from a sharp boundary and full-wave solutions -- Reflection at a boundary -- Full-wave solutions -- Sub-ionospheric propagation at ELF and VLF -- Partial reflections at MF and HF -- 3.4.7 Whistlers -- 3.5 Ionospheric scatter -- 3.5.1 Coherent scatter -- 3.5.2 Forward scatter -- 3.5.3 Incoherent scatter -- 3.6 HF-propagation-prediction programs -- 3.7 Summary -- 3.8 References and bibliography -- Section 3.2 -- Section 3.3 -- Section 3.4 -- Section 3.5 -- Section 3.6 -- Section 3.7 -- General reading -- Chapter 4 Radio techniques for probing the ionosphere -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Ground-based systems -- 4.2.1 Ionosondes -- Capabilities and limitations -- 4.2.2 Coherent oblique-incidence radio-sounding systems -- Basic principles.

Types of oblique sounders currently in use -- Some advantages and disadvantages of auroral and HF radars -- Auroral radars -- HF radars -- 4.2.3 Incoherent-scatter radars -- 4.2.4 D-region absorption measurements -- Current status and global deployment -- The URSI A1a and A1b methods -- The URSI A2 method -- Imaging riometry -- URSI A3a and A3b methods -- 4.2.5 Ionospheric modification by HF transmitters -- Basic principles -- Capabilities and limitations of ionospheric-modification techniques -- 4.3 Space-based systems -- 4.3.1 A history of Earth-satellite and radio-rocket probing -- 4.3.2 Basic principles of operation and current deployment of radio-beacon experiments -- 4.3.3 Topside sounders -- 4.3.4 In situ techniques for satellites and rockets -- 4.3.5 Capabilities and limitations -- 4.4 Other techniques -- 4.4.1 HF spaced-receiver and Doppler systems -- 4.4.2 The HF Doppler technique -- 4.4.3 Ionospheric imaging -- 4.5 Summary -- 4.6 References and bibliography -- Section 4.1 -- Section 4.2 -- Section 4.3 -- Chapter 5 The high-latitude F region and the trough -- 5.1 Circulation of the high-latitude F region -- 5.1.1 Introduction -- 5.1.2 Circulation patterns -- 5.2 The behavior of the F region at high latitude -- 5.2.1 The F region in the polar cap -- The tongue -- The UT effect -- 5.2.2 The effect of the polar cusps -- 5.2.3 The polar wind -- 5.2.4 The F layer in and near the auroral oval -- 5.3 Irregularities of the F region at high latitude -- 5.3.1 Introduction -- 5.3.2 Enhancements: patches and blobs -- Patches -- Blobs -- 5.3.3 Scintillation-producing irregularities -- Distribution and occurrence -- The period and depth of fading -- Spectrum -- Direct measurements -- Modeling -- 5.4 The main trough -- 5.4.1 Introduction -- 5.4.2 Observed properties and behavior of the main trough -- Observations.

A summary of principal properties (northern hemisphere) -- Formulae for variations with time and magnetic activity -- The southern hemisphere -- 5.4.3 The poleward edge of the trough -- Introduction -- Orientation -- Electron precipitation and the poleward edge -- 5.4.4 Motions of individual troughs -- 5.4.5 Mechanisms and models -- The main trough caused by plasma decay -- Other mechanisms -- 5.5 Troughs and holes at high latitude -- 5.6 Summary and implications -- 5.7 References and bibliography -- 5.1 Circulation of the high-latitude ionosphere -- 5.2 Behaviour of the F region at high latitude -- 5.3 Irregularities of the F region at high latitude -- 5.4 The main trough -- 5.5 Troughs and holes at high latitude -- Chapter 6 The aurora, the substorm, and the E region -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Occurrence zones -- 6.2.1 The auroral zone and the auroral oval -- 6.2.2 Models of the oval -- 6.3 The auroral phenomena -- 6.3.1 The luminous aurora -- 6.3.2 The distribution and intensity of the luminous aurora -- 6.3.3 Auroral spectroscopy -- 6.3.4 Ionospheric effects -- The E region -- The D region -- X-rays -- Magnetic effects -- 6.3.5 The outer precipitation zone -- 6.4 The substorm -- 6.4.1 History -- 6.4.2 The substorm in the aurora -- 6.4.3 Ionospheric aspects of the substorm -- 6.4.4 Substorm currents -- 6.4.5 The substorm in the magnetosphere -- Field-line circulation -- Behavior in the tail -- Various theories -- 6.4.6 The influence of the IMF and the question of substorm triggering -- The magnetic power of the solar wind -- The influence of Bz on triggering -- The substorm rate -- 6.4.7 Relations between the storm and the substorm -- 6.5 The E region at high latitude -- 6.5.1 Introduction -- 6.5.2 The polar E layer -- 6.5.3 The auroral E layer under quiet conditions -- 6.5.4 The disturbed auroral E layer -- 6.5.5 Auroral radar -- Theory.

Polarization.