Cover -- Half-title -- Series-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Dedication -- Contents -- Foreword -- Preface -- Abbreviations -- Acknowledgements -- 1 The emergence of environmental toxicology as science -- 1.1 The context -- 1.2 The historical background: Classical toxicology, ecotoxicology, and environmental toxicology -- 1.3 Social aspects: The environmental movement -- 1.4 Social aspects: Regulation -- 1.5 Education in environmental toxicology -- 1.6 The role of technology -- 1.7 Questions -- 1.8 References -- 1.9 Further reading -- 2 The science of environmental toxicology: Concepts and definitions -- 2.1 The development of environmental toxicology -- 2.1.1 An historical perspective on the science of environmental toxicology -- 2.1.2 An evolutionary perspective on environmental toxicology -- 2.2 Assessment of toxicity -- 2.2.1 The dose-response -- 2.2.2 The acute toxicity bioassay -- 2.2.3 Subacute (chronic) toxicity assays -- 2.2.4 The relationship between acute and chronic toxicity -- 2.2.5 Statistical considerations -- TIME RESPONSE (TIME-TO-DEATH) MODELS -- 2.2.6 Comparative bioassays -- 2.2.7 Sediment toxicity assays -- 2.3 Toxicity at the molecular level -- 2.3.1 Carcinogenesis -- DNA LESIONS -- MUTAGENESIS -- 2.3.2 Genotoxicity assays -- 2.3.3 Chromosome studies -- 2.3.4 The concept of threshold toxicity -- 2.3.5 Hormesis -- 2.3.6 Receptors -- 2.4 Questions -- 2.5 References -- 3 Routes and kinetics of toxicant uptake -- 3.1 General considerations -- 3.2 Route of toxicant uptake -- 3.2.1 Skin -- 3.2.2 Lungs -- 3.2.3 Gills -- 3.2.4 Digestive system -- 3.2.5 Toxicant uptake by plants -- 3.3 Uptake at the tissue and cellular level -- 3.3.1 Toxicokinetics -- DIFFUSION -- COMPARTMENTAL MODELS -- 3.3.2 Single-compartment model -- 3.3.3 Two-compartment model -- 3.3.4 Volume of distribution -- 3.3.5 Transporter-mediated transport.

3.3.6 Lethal body burden (critical body residue) -- SAMPLE PROBLEMS -- 3.4 Questions -- 3.5 References -- 3.6 Further reading -- 4 Methodological approaches -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 The general concepts and principles for biological indicators -- 4.3 Tolerance and resistance to potentially toxic substances -- 4.3.1 Some conundrums related to tolerance in the context of environmental assessment -- 4.3.2 Selection for tolerance, mechanisms of tolerance, and potential practical applications of the phenomenon -- MECHANISMS OF TOLERANCE -- COST OF TOLERANCE -- 4.4 Biological scale -- 4.4.1 Principles and properties of biochemical markers/biochemical indicators -- 4.4.2 Some of the more commonly used groups of biochemical markers -- MONOOXYGENASE (MIXED FUNCTION OXIDASE) ENZYME -- PHASE II (CONJUGATIVE) ENZYMES (GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE) -- BIOMARKERS OF DNA DAMAGE AND REPAIR -- METALLOTHIONEINS -- STRESS PROTEINS -- IMMUNE FUNCTION -- TISSUE PATHOLOGY -- SCOPE FOR GROWTH -- 4.4.3 Individual species as indicators or monitors -- INDICATORS -- MONITORS -- 4.4.4 Surrogates for ecosystem indicators -- 4.5 Community and higher level indicators: The ecological approach to toxicology -- 4.5.1 Interspecies effects of toxic substances -- 4.5.2 Interaction between and among trophic levels as affected by toxic substances -- 4.5.3 Population and community end-points -- POPULATION-BASED END-POINTS -- COMMUNITY INDICES -- 4.5.4 Ecosystem equilibrium. Fact or fiction? -- 4.6 Modelling -- 4.6.1 The concepts of modelling -- 4.6.2 Mass balance models -- 1. THE NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA: EVALUATIVE ENVIRONMENTS -- 2. THE STEADY-STATE MASS BALANCE MODEL -- 3. UPTAKE/CLEARANCE OF A CHEMICAL BY A FISH -- EFFECTS MODELLING -- 4.6.3 Some other models for use in environmental toxicology.

4.6.4 Advantages, limitations, and pitfalls in the modelling for environmental toxicology -- 4.7 Examples of methods and approaches for community or higher level responses -- 4.7.1 Enclosures: Microcosms and mesocosms -- MESOCOSMS -- MICROCOSMS -- 4.7.2 Whole system manipulations -- 4.8 The role of technical advances in methods for environmental toxicology -- ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY -- ELECTRON MICROSCOPY -- THE COMPUTER -- 4.9 Choice of approaches -- CHOICE OF BIOLOGICAL SCALE -- CHOICE OF METHODS -- CHOICE OF TEST ORGANISMS OR SYSTEMS -- RESOURCES -- 4.10 Case studies -- Case Study 4.1. Benthic invertebrate communities in metal-contaminated sites exceeding criteria for acceptable sediment… -- Chemical analyses -- Benthos -- Toxicity tests -- Conclusions -- Case Study 4.2. Biomarkers of organic chemical contamination in fish from Puget Sound -- Chemical exposure -- Chemical effects -- Case Study 4.3. The effect of coal-ash pollution on bullfrogs: An energy budget approach -- Morphology -- Behaviour -- Physiology -- Case Study 4.4. Phytotoxicology assessment for Nanticoke Generating Station: Biological indicators and monitors of air… -- Contaminants in foliage -- Forage plants -- Permanent plots -- The annual indicator plot programme -- Case Study 4.5. Chesapeake Bay: A study of eutrophication and complex trophic interactions -- Case Study 4.6. The use of lentic mesocosms in toxicity testing -- Case Study 4.7. The cadmium spike experiment, Experimental Lakes Area -- 4.11 Questions -- 4.12 References -- 4.13 Further reading -- 5 Factors affecting toxicity -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Biotic factors affecting toxicity -- 5.2.1 Taxonomic group -- 5.2.2 Age/body size -- 5.3 Abiotic factors affecting toxicity -- 5.3.1 Temperature -- 5.3.2 pH and alkalinity -- 5.3.3 Salinity -- 5.3.4 Hardness -- 5.3.5 Chemical mixtures -- 5.3.6 Dissolved organic carbon.

5.4 Role of particulates -- 5.4.1 The importance of food -- 5.5 Quantitative structure-activity relationships -- 5.6 Implications for future environmental regulation -- 5.7 Questions -- 5.8 References -- 5.9 Further reading -- 6 Metals and other inorganic chemicals -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 The properties and environmental behaviour of metals and metalloids -- 6.2.1 General properties of metals and metalloids -- 6.2.2 The mobilisation, binding, and chemical forms of metals in the environment -- 6.2.3 The biological availability of metals in the environment -- 6.2.4 Approaches for determining the chemical species and availability of metals -- RECENT TECHNICAL ADVANCES FOR DETERMINING METAL SPECIES -- BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS FOR MEASURING THE AVAILABILITY OF METALS -- MEASUREMENTS OF METAL CONTENT OR UPTAKE IN LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE FIELD -- 6.2.5 The persistence of metals in the environment -- 6.2.6 Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification of metals in the environment -- 6.3 Analytical methods, temporal and spatial distribution of metals and metalloids in the environment -- 6.3.1 Analytical chemistry -- 6.3.2 Historical records -- 6.3.3 Spatial records and source signatures -- 6.4 Mercury -- 6.4.1 The background to environmental concerns for mercury -- 6.4.2 The properties, occurrence, and environmental behaviour of mercury -- 6.4.3 The toxicity of mercury and populations at risk -- 6.4.4 The reservoir problem -- 6.5 Lead -- 6.5.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of lead -- 6.5.2 The environmental transport and behaviour of lead -- 6.5.3 Environmental exposure and the toxicity of lead -- HUMAN HEALTH -- OTHER BIOTA -- 6.6 Cadmium -- 6.6.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of cadmium -- 6.6.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of cadmium -- 6.6.3 The toxicity of cadmium -- 6.7 Copper.

6.7.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of copper -- 6.7.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of copper -- 6.7.3 The toxicity of copper -- 6.8 Nickel -- 6.8.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of nickel -- 6.8.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of nickel -- 6.8.3 The toxicity of nickel -- 6.9 Selenium -- 6.9.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of selenium -- 6.9.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of selenium -- 6.9.3 The toxicity of selenium -- 6.10 Phosphorus -- 6.10.1 The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of phosphorus -- 6.10.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of phosphorus -- 6.11 Fluorine -- 6.11.1 The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of fluorine -- 6.11.2 The toxicity of fluoride -- PLANTS -- ANIMALS -- 6.12 Questions -- 6.13 References -- 6.14 Further reading -- Appendix: Properties of selected metals and metalloids -- 1. Aluminium -- 2. Arsenic -- 3. Cadmium -- 4. Chromium -- 5. Copper -- 6. Iron -- 7. Lead -- 8. Manganese -- 9. Mercury -- 10. Nickel -- 11. Selenium -- 12. Silver -- 13. Vanadium -- 14. Zinc -- 7 Organic compounds -- 7.1 The nature of organic compounds -- 7.1.1 Behaviour and transport -- 7.2 Pesticides -- 7.2.1 Chlorinated organics -- DDT -- CYCLODIENES -- HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE -- MIREX AND CHLORDECONE (KEPONE) -- PYRETHROIDS -- 7.2.2 Organophosphate pesticides -- 7.2.3 Carbamate pesticides -- 7.2.4 Phenoxyacid herbicides -- 7.2.5 Bipyridilium herbicides -- 7.2.6 Triazine herbicides -- 7.3 Polychlorinated biphenyls -- 7.3.1 Chemistry and effects -- 7.3.2 Evidence of decline in environmental PCBs -- 7.4 Dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans -- 7.5 Organic chemicals as environmental estrogens (endocrine disrupters) -- 7.5.1 Rationale -- 7.5.2 Proposed mechanism for the action of estrogenic compounds -- 7.5.3 Effect of organic chemicals on male reproductive health.

7.5.4 Environmental influences on breast cancer.