ADDITIVES IN POLYMERS Industrial Analysis and Applications -- Contents -- FOREWORD -- PREFACE -- ABOUT THE AUTHOR -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- CHAPTER 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Additives -- 1.1.1 Additive functionality -- 1.2 Plastics formulations -- 1.2.1 Supply forms -- 1.2.2 Additive delivery -- 1.3 Economic impact of polymer additives -- 1.4 Analysis of plastics -- 1.4.1 Regulations and standardisation -- 1.4.2 Prior art -- 1.4.3 Databases -- 1.4.4 Scope -- 1.4.5 Chapter overview -- 1.5 Bibliography -- 1.5.1 Plastics additives -- 1.5.2 Processing technologies -- 1.5.3 Instrumental analysis -- 1.5.4 Polymer analysis -- 1.5.5 Polymer/additive analysis -- 1.6 References -- CHAPTER 2 Deformulation Principles -- 2.1 Polymer identification -- 2.2 Additive analysis of rubbers: 'Best Practice' -- 2.3 Polymer extract analysis -- 2.4 In situ polymer/additive analysis -- 2.5 Class-specific polymer/additive analysis -- 2.6 Bibliography -- 2.6.1 Polymer identification -- 2.6.2 Deformulation of rubbers -- 2.6.3 Deformulation of polymers -- 2.7 References -- CHAPTER 3 Sample Preparation Perspectives -- 3.1 Solvents -- 3.1.1 Polymer solubility criteria -- 3.1.2 Solubility parameters -- 3.1.3 Polymer solutions -- 3.2 Extraction strategy -- 3.3 Conventional extraction technologies -- 3.3.1 Liquid-liquid extraction -- 3.3.2 Liquid-solid extraction -- 3.3.3 Classical solvent extractions of additives from polymers -- 3.3.4 Sonication -- 3.4 High-pressure solvent extraction methods -- 3.4.1 Supercritical fluid technology -- 3.4.2 Analytical SFE -- 3.4.3 Subcritical water extraction -- 3.4.4 Microwave technology -- 3.4.5 Microwave-assisted extractions -- 3.4.6 Pressurised fluid extraction -- 3.5 Sorbent extraction -- 3.5.1 Solid-phase extraction -- 3.5.2 Solid-phase microextraction -- 3.5.3 Stir bar sorptive extraction -- 3.6 Methodological comparison of extraction methods.

3.6.1 Experimental comparisons -- 3.6.2 Extraction selectivity -- 3.6.3 'Nonextractable' additive analysis -- 3.7 Polymer/additive dissolution methods -- 3.8 Hydrolysis -- 3.9 Bibliography -- 3.9.1 Sampling and sample preparation -- 3.9.2 Solvents/solubility -- 3.9.3 Extraction methods -- 3.10 References -- CHAPTER 4 Separation Techniques -- 4.1 Analytical detectors -- 4.2 Gas chromatography -- 4.2.1 High-temperature gas chromatography -- 4.2.2 Headspace gas chromatography -- 4.3 Supercritical fluid chromatography -- 4.4 Liquid chromatography techniques -- 4.4.1 Planar chromatographies -- 4.4.2 Column chromatographies -- 4.5 Capillary electrophoretic techniques -- 4.6 Bibliography -- 4.6.1 General texts -- 4.6.2 Detectors -- 4.6.3 Gas chromatography -- 4.6.4 Supercritical fluid chromatography -- 4.6.5 Thin-layer chromatography -- 4.6.6 Liquid chromatography -- 4.6.7 Size-exclusion chromatography -- 4.6.8 Ion chromatography -- 4.6.9 Capillary electrophoretic techniques -- 4.7 References -- CHAPTER 5 Polymer/Additive Analysis: The Spectroscopic Alternative -- 5.1 Ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometry -- 5.2 Infrared spectroscopy -- 5.3 Luminescence spectroscopy -- 5.4 High-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy -- 5.4.1 Multidimensional NMR spectroscopy -- 5.5 Bibliography -- 5.5.1 General spectroscopy -- 5.5.2 Ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometry -- 5.5.3 Infrared spectroscopy -- 5.5.4 Luminescence spectroscopy -- 5.5.5 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy -- 5.6 References -- CHAPTER 6 Organic Mass-Spectrometric Methods -- 6.1 Basic instrumentation -- 6.1.1 Inlet systems -- 6.1.2 Modes of detection -- 6.1.3 Mass resolution -- 6.1.4 Isotope distributions -- 6.1.5 Accurate mass measurements -- 6.2 Ion sources -- 6.2.1 Electron impact ionisation -- 6.2.2 Chemical ionisation -- 6.2.3 Metastable atom bombardment.

6.2.4 Fast atom bombardment -- 6.2.5 Field ionisation -- 6.2.6 Field desorption -- 6.2.7 Thermospray ionisation -- 6.2.8 Atmospheric pressure ionisation techniques -- 6.2.9 Desorption/ionisation methods -- 6.2.10 Photoionisation techniques -- 6.3 Mass analysers -- 6.3.1 Sector analysers -- 6.3.2 Quadrupole mass spectrometers -- 6.3.3 Time-of-flight mass spectrometry -- 6.3.4 Quadrupole ion trap -- 6.3.5 Fourier-transform ion-cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry -- 6.3.6 Tandem mass spectrometry -- 6.4 Direct mass-spectrometric polymer compound analysis -- 6.5 Ion mobility spectrometry -- 6.6 Bibliography -- 6.6.1 Mass spectrometry (General) -- 6.6.2 Mass spectrometers -- 6.6.3 Ionisation modes -- 6.7 References -- CHAPTER 7 Multihyphenation and Multidimensionality in Polymer/Additive Analysis -- 7.1 Precolumn hyphenation -- 7.1.1 Chromatographic sampling methods -- 7.2 Coupled sample preparation - spectroscopy/spectrometry -- 7.3 Postcolumn hyphenation -- 7.3.1 (Multi)hyphenated GC techniques -- 7.3.2 (Multi)hyphenated SFC techniques -- 7.3.3 (Multi)hyphenated HPLC techniques -- 7.3.4 Hyphenated SEC techniques -- 7.3.5 Hyphenated TLC techniques -- 7.3.6 Hyphenated CE techniques -- 7.4 Multidimensional chromatography -- 7.4.1 Multidimensional gas chromatography -- 7.4.2 Multidimensional supercritical fluid chromatography -- 7.4.3 Multidimensional liquid chromatography -- 7.4.4 Multidimensional thin-layer chromatography -- 7.5 Multidimensional spectroscopy -- 7.6 Bibliography -- 7.6.1 General -- 7.6.2 Multihyphenation and multidimensionality -- 7.6.3 Precolumn hyphenation -- 7.6.4 Postcolumn hyphenation -- 7.6.5 Multidimensional chromatography -- 7.6.6 Multidimensional spectroscopy -- 7.7 References -- CHAPTER 8 Inorganic and Element Analytical Methods -- 8.1 Element analytical protocols -- 8.1.1 Element analytical pretreatment protocols.

8.1.2 Elemental analysis methods -- 8.2 Sample destruction for classical elemental analysis -- 8.2.1 Combustion analysis -- 8.2.2 Wet matrix digestion -- 8.2.3 Fusion methods -- 8.3 Analytical atomic spectrometry -- 8.3.1 Atomic absorption spectrometry -- 8.3.2 Atomic emission spectrometry -- 8.3.3 Atomic fluorescence spectrometry -- 8.3.4 Direct spectrometric analysis of solid samples -- 8.4 X-ray spectrometry -- 8.4.1 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry -- 8.4.2 Particle-induced X-ray emission spectrometry -- 8.4.3 X-ray absorption spectrometry -- 8.4.4 X-ray diffraction -- 8.5 Inorganic mass spectrometry -- 8.5.1 Spark-source mass spectrometry -- 8.5.2 Glow-discharge mass spectrometry -- 8.5.3 Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry -- 8.5.4 Isotope dilution mass spectrometry -- 8.6 Radioanalytical and nuclear analytical methods -- 8.6.1 Activation analysis -- 8.7 Electroanalytical techniques -- 8.7.1 Potentiometric methods -- 8.7.2 Voltammetric methods -- 8.7.3 Coulometric methods -- 8.8 Solid-state speciation analysis -- 8.9 Bibliography -- 8.9.1 Sampling and sample preparation -- 8.9.2 Atomic spectrometry -- 8.9.3 X-ray spectrometry -- 8.9.4 Inorganic mass spectrometry -- 8.9.5 Nuclear analytical methods -- 8.9.6 Trace-element analysis -- 8.9.7 Electroanalysis -- 8.9.8 Speciation analysis -- 8.10 References -- CHAPTER 9 Direct Methods of Deformulation of Polymer/Additive Dissolutions -- 9.1 Chromatographic methods -- 9.1.1 Size-exclusion chromatography -- 9.2 Spectroscopic techniques -- 9.2.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy -- 9.3 Mass-spectrometric methods -- 9.3.1 MALDI-MS analysis of polymer/additive dissolutions -- 9.4 References -- CHAPTER 10 A Vision for the Future -- 10.1 Trends in polymer technology -- 10.2 Trends in additive technology -- 10.2.1 Advances in additives.

10.3 Environmental, legislative and regulatory constraints -- 10.3.1 Trends in manufacturing, processing and formulation -- 10.4 Analytical consequences -- 10.4.1 General analytical tool development -- 10.4.2 Future trends in polymer/additive analysis -- 10.4.3 Analytical challenges -- 10.4.4 Polymer/additive analysis at the extremes -- 10.4.5 Advanced polymer/additive deformulation schemes -- 10.5 Epilogue -- 10.6 Bibliography -- 10.7 References -- APPENDIX I List of Symbols -- APPENDIX II Functionality of Common Additives Used in Commercial Thermoplastics, Rubbers and Thermosetting Resins -- APPENDIX III Specimen Polymer Additives Product Sheets -- INDEX.