Title page -- Foreword -- Contents -- Introduction -- Researching Spontaneous Collaborative Play -- Thesis Structure -- Foundations: Social Play as a Design Framework for Emergence -- Exploring Presence and Social Play -- Defining Presence Based Group Play -- What Is Presence? -- Why Play? -- Crowd Behaviour and Group Dynamics -- Emergent Self-Organisation -- The Challenge of Mixed Reality Collective Experiences -- Participant Observation in Flash Mobs -- Wireless Location-Based Multiplayer Games -- Location-Based Social Software -- A Categorization of Ubiquitous Social Experiences -- Research Framework -- Design for Emergence -- A Model for Design for Emergence -- Design Principles -- Presence Is Symbolic -- Large Scale Is Important for Emergent Interaction -- Keep the Design Lightweight -- By Employing Affordances Users Understand and Can Extend the Design -- Early Design Sketches for Design for Emergence -- Online Games -- Pixeltag: A Mobile Game -- Mixed Reality Games -- Final Thoughts Towards a Playground Social Game -- Online Case Study: Experiments with a Multiplayer Bumper Car Game -- Playground Interaction Online: The Bumper Car Game -- The Idea -- Storyboards and Variations -- Technical Limitations and Design Considerations -- BumperCar Design and Experiments -- The Game Design -- Experimental Design -- Analysis Method -- Findings -- Emergence -- Spontaneous Collaboration and Group Behaviours -- Game Experience -- Visual Communication and Design -- Conclusions -- Design for Emergence in the Real World: Experimenting with a Mixed Reality Urban Playground -- CitiTag: Urban Space as a Large Group Playground -- The Idea -- Storyboards and Scenarios -- The Action of Tagging -- Group Formations and Swarming -- Views -- Metaphor -- The CitiTag Game -- Limitations and Design Considerations -- CitiTag Design -- CitiTag System Architecture.

Method: User Studies -- Findings -- Game Experience -- Emergence -- Awareness, Group Belongingness and Collaboration -- Usability and Design -- Conclusions and Future Work -- Reflections on How to Design for Emergence -- Designing for Spontaneous Collaborative Play Based on Presence -- Revisiting the Research Framework -- Emergence in BumperCars and CitiTag -- Emergence as Experiential Variability -- Emergence Feeding Back into the Design Process -- Guidelines for Design for Emergence for Online and Ubiquitous Multi-User Applications -- Future Work with Spontaneous Presence-Based Play -- Key Research Questions and Opportunities -- UrbanSwarm: A Proposed Example for Further Research -- Conclusion: So What? -- References -- Acknowledgements.