Cover -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Foreword -- About the Author -- Acknowledgement -- Chapter 1 Water Conservation - A Priority for Business -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Global Water Resources Availability -- 1.3 Human Need for Safe Drinking Water and Proper Sanitation -- 1.4 Meeting Agricultural Needs -- 1.5 The Impact of Climate Change -- 1.6 Business Sector Water Usage -- 1.7 Nine Reasons for Business to Reduce Their Water Consumption -- 1.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2 Basic Water Chemistry -- 2.1 Overview -- 2.2 Solubility Principles -- 2.3 Common Substances Found in Water -- 2.3.1 pH -- 2.3.2 Dissolved Gases -- 2.3.2.1 Carbon dioxide and Alkalinity -- 2.3.2.2 Oxygen (O2) -- 2.3.2.3 Ammonia (NH3) -- 2.3.2.4 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) -- 2.3.3 Dissolved Ions -- 2.3.3.1 Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids -- 2.3.3.2 Hardness, Calcium and Magnesium -- 2.3.3.3 Chlorides -- 2.3.3.4 Sodium -- 2.3.3.5 Iron -- 2.3.3.6 Manganese -- 2.3.3.7 Silica -- 2.3.3.8 Phosphate -- 2.3.3.9 Nitrate -- 2.3.3.10 Boron -- 2.3.3.11 Cyanide -- 2.3.4 Suspended Solids and Turbidity -- 2.3.5 Colour -- 2.3.6 Organics in Water -- 2.3.6.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand -- 2.3.6.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand -- 2.3.7 Micro-organisms -- 2.3.7.1 Viruses -- 2.3.7.2 Bacteria -- 2.3.7.3 Protozoa -- 2.3.7.4 Algae -- 2.3.7.5 Helminths -- 2.3.7.6 Fungi -- 2.3.8 Heavy Metals -- 2.3.8.1 Chromium -- 2.3.8.2 Cadmium -- 2.3.8.3 Lead -- 2.3.8.4 Mercury -- 2.3.9 Radionuclides -- References -- Chapter 3 Saving Water: Step by Step -- 3.1 Developing a Sustainable Water Management Plan -- 3.2 Step 1: Seek Senior Management Commitment -- 3.3 Step 2: Appoint A Water Conservation Manager -- 3.3.1 Responsibilities of the Water Conservation Manager -- 3.4 Step 3: Gather Baseline Data and Review Usage -- 3.5 Step 4: Identify Improvement Opportunities.

3.5.1 Carry Out an Assessment of Management Systems -- 3.5.1.1 One-2-Five Water® - Management Diagnostic System -- 3.5.2 Technical Assessment -- 3.5.2.1 How Detailed Should the Water Audit Be? -- 3.5.2.2 Estimating Water-Saving Potential -- 3.5.2.3 Complying with Regulatory Standards -- 3.5.2.4 Carrying out a Water Audit -- 3.5.2.5 Develop a Water Balance -- 3.5.2.6 Identifying Other Opportunities to Reduce Water Use -- 3.6 Step 5: Preparing the Plan Prioritising the Opportunities -- 3.7 Step 6: Report the Results -- 3.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4 Measuring Flow and Consumption -- 4.1 Flow Measurement -- 4.2 Types of FlowMeters -- 4.2.1 Positive Displacement Meters (volumetric) -- 4.2.2 Velocity Meters -- 4.2.2.1 Mechanical Meters -- 4.2.2.2 Non-Mechanical Meters -- 4.3 Selecting a Flowmeter -- 4.4 Dataloggers -- 4.5 Chemical Methods of Flow Measurement -- 4.6 Conclusion -- Chapter 5 Cooling Water Systems -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Types of Cooling Systems -- 5.2.1 Open Recirculating Cooling Water Systems -- 5.2.1.1 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems - Operational Principles -- 5.2.1.2 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems - Basic Concepts -- 5.3 Types of Cooling Towers -- 5.3.1 Induced Draught Cross-flow Cooling Towers -- 5.3.2 Induced Draught Counter-flow Cooling Towers -- 5.3.3 Forced Draught Wet Cooling Towers -- 5.3.4 Evaporative Condensers -- 5.4 Water Conservation Opportunities -- 5.4.1 Reducing Involuntary Water Loss -- 5.4.1.1 Minimising Overflow of Water from Cooling Tower Basins -- 5.4.1.2 Incorrect Piping Configuration -- 5.4.1.3 Leakage from Pipes, Joints and Pump Glands -- 5.4.1.4 Drift Loss -- 5.4.1.5 Splash -- 5.4.2 Reducing Voluntary Water Loss -- 5.4.2.1 Increasing Cycles of Concentration -- 5.4.2.2 Install Flowmeters on Make-up and Blowdown Lines and Conductivity Meters in Blowdown Lines.

5.4.2.3 Operate Blowdown in Continuous Mode -- 5.4.2.4 Install Sidestream Filtration -- 5.4.3 Improving Operating Practices -- 5.4.3.1 Shut Off the Unit When not in Operation -- 5.4.3.2 Minimise Process Leaks to the Cooling System -- 5.5 Alternative Water Sources -- 5.5.1 Maximum Allowable Concentrations -- 5.6 Cooling Water Treatment for Recirculating Water Systems -- 5.6.1 Scaling -- 5.6.1.1 Scaling Indices -- 5.6.1.2 What the LSI is Not -- 5.6.1.3 Scale-control Methods -- 5.6.2 Fouling -- 5.6.3 Corrosion -- 5.6.4 Biofouling and Microbial Growth -- 5.6.4.1 Microbiological Control -- 5.7 Role of Water Treatment Contractors in Water Conservation -- 5.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6 Alternatives to Wet Cooling Towers -- 6.1 Air-conditioning and Refrigeration Systems -- 6.2 Energy Conservation = Water Conservation -- 6.3 Alternative Heat Rejection Systems -- 6.3.1 Air-Cooled Condensers -- 6.3.2 Hybrid Cooling Towers -- 6.3.3 Combination Cooling Systems -- 6.3.4 Geothermal Cooling Systems -- References -- Chapter 7 Steam Systems -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Steam System Principles -- 7.2.1 Pre-treatment -- 7.2.2 Steam Generation -- 7.2.2.1 Firetube Boilers -- 7.2.2.2 Watertube Boilers -- 7.2.2.3 Waste Heat Recovery Boilers -- 7.2.3 Steam Distribution System -- 7.2.3.1 Thermostatic Traps -- 7.2.3.2 Mechanical Traps -- 7.2.3.3 Thermodynamic Traps -- 7.2.3.4 Fixed Orifice Condensate Discharge Traps (FOCDT) -- 7.3 Steam and Energy Conservation Opportunities -- 7.3.1 Repair Steam Leaks -- 7.3.2 Maximise Condensate Recovery -- 7.3.2.1 Condensate Quality and System Protection -- 7.3.2.2 Minimise Water Logging of Pipes -- 7.3.3 Minimising Boiler Water Blowdown -- 7.3.3.1 Blowdown Control -- 7.4 Calculating the "True" Cost of Steam -- References -- Chapter 8 Industrial Water Reuse Technologies -- 8.1 Introduction.

8.2 A Step-by-Step Approach to Water Reuse -- 8.2.1 Establishing the Goals of the Study -- 8.2.1.1 Goals -- 8.2.1.2 Project Boundaries -- 8.2.2 Gather Data -- 8.2.3 Identify the Project -- 8.2.4 Technical Assessment -- 8.2.5 Implementation -- 8.3 Pollutants Found in Reuse Streams -- 8.4 Removal of Pollutants -- 8.4.1 Order of Removal -- 8.5 Removal of Suspended Solids -- 8.5.1 Screening -- 8.5.2 Sedimentation -- 8.5.3 Settling -- 8.5.4 Chemically Aided Settling - Coagulation -- 8.5.5 Filtration -- 8.6 Removal of Fats, Oils and Greases -- 8.6.1 Sources of Fats, Oil and Grease -- 8.6.2 Free FOG Removal - Skimming -- 8.6.3 Emulsified FOG Removal -- 8.6.3.1 Air Flotation -- 8.6.3.2 Ultrafiltration -- 8.7 Removal of Biodegradable Organics -- 8.7.1 Activated Sludge Process -- 8.7.2 Anaerobic Processes -- 8.7.2.1 Performance -- 8.7.3 Membrane Bioreactors -- 8.8 Removal of Heavy Metals -- 8.8.1 Chemical Precipitation -- 8.8.2 Ion Exchange -- 8.9 Adsorption -- 8.10 Membranes for Removal of Dissolved Ions -- 8.10.1 Overview -- 8.10.2 Dead-End and Cross-Flow Filtration -- 8.10.2.1 Dead-end Filtration -- 8.10.2.2 Cross-flow Filtration -- 8.10.3 Membrane Types -- 8.10.3.1 Microfiltration -- 8.10.3.2 Ultrafiltration -- 8.10.3.3 Nanofiltration -- 8.10.3.4 Reverse Osmosis -- 8.10.4 Membrane Structure -- 8.10.5 Membrane Configurations -- 8.10.5.1 Spiral Wound -- 8.10.5.2 Hollow Fibre -- 8.10.5.3 Tubular -- 8.10.5.4 Plate and Frame -- 8.10.6 Membrane Performance Monitoring -- 8.10.6.1 Silt Density Index -- 8.10.6.2 Assessment of Scaling Tendencies -- 8.10.6.3 Membrane flux -- 8.10.6.4 Permeate Recovery -- 8.10.7 Disposal of Brine Streams -- 8.10.8 Considerations When Selecting Membrane Systems -- 8.10.9 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal -- References -- Chapter 9 Making a Financially Sound Business Case -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Management Functions.

9.3 Making a Good Business Case -- 9.3.1 Identifying Hidden Costs -- 9.4 Computing Cash Flows -- 9.5 Investment Appraisal Methods -- 9.5.1 Payback Method -- 9.5.2 Return on Investment Method -- 9.5.3 Discounted Cash Flow Methods -- 9.5.4 Net Present Value Analyses -- 9.5.5 Internal Rate of Return -- 9.6 Assessing Project Risk -- References -- Chapter 10 The Hospitality Sector -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Benchmarking Water and Energy Consumption -- 10.2.1 Benchmarking Water Consumption -- 10.2.2 Benchmarking Energy Consumption -- 10.3 Steps to Achieve Water Savings -- 10.3.1 Water Management Policy -- 10.3.2 Gathering Consumption and Billing Data and Metering Water Consumption -- 10.3.3 Identifying the Best Opportunities -- 10.3.3.1 Guest Rooms -- 10.3.3.2 Public Amenities -- 10.3.3.3 Kitchens -- 10.3.3.4 Cooling Tower: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration -- 10.3.3.5 Laundry -- 10.3.3.6 Ice-Making Machines -- 10.3.3.7 Swimming Pools -- 10.3.3.8 Staff Rooms -- 10.3.3.9 Irrigation -- 10.4 Staff Awareness Programmes -- 10.5 Guest Awareness Programmes -- References -- Chapter 11 Commercial Buildings, Hospitals and Institutional Buildings -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Commercial Property - Office and Retail -- 11.2.1 Industry Structure and Water Usage -- 11.2.2 Water-Usage Benchmarks -- 11.2.2.1 Energy Consumption -- 11.2.2.2 Shopping Centres -- 11.2.3 Water-Saving Opportunities -- 11.3 Hospitals -- 11.3.1 Benchmarking Water Usage -- 11.3.2 Benchmarking Energy Consumption -- 11.3.3 Water Conservation Opportunities -- 11.3.3.1 Monitor Leakage -- 11.3.3.2 Air-conditioning and Refrigeration Systems -- 11.3.3.3 Steam Systems -- 11.3.3.4 Taps, Toilets and Urinals -- 11.3.3.5 Food Preparation -- 11.3.3.6 In-house Laundries -- 11.3.3.7 Medical Equipment -- 11.3.3.8 Increase Staff Awareness -- 11.3.3.9 Floor cleaning -- 11.4 Correctional Centres.

11.4.1 Water Usage Benchmarks.