Road User Charging and Electronic Toll Collection -- Contents vii -- Acknowledgments xv -- Chapter 1 Introduction to Road User Charging 1 -- 1.1 Introduction 1 -- 1.2 Scope of This Book 2 -- 1.3 Brief Overview of Road Charging Developments 6 -- References 9 -- Chapter 2 Road User Charging and Toll Collection 11 -- 2.1 Historical Context 11 -- 2.2 Charging for Road Use 12 -- 2.3 From Policy to Technology 21 -- 2.4 New Methods of Charging 37 -- 2.5 Complementary Systems 41 -- 2.6 Summary 43 -- References 43 -- Chapter 3 Technology Options for Charging 49 -- 3.1 Background 49 -- 3.2 Minimum Operational Requirements for Charging Technologies 51 -- 3.3 The Dilemma of Precedence 52 -- 3.4 Charging Versus Payment 53 -- 3.5 Functional Requirements and Technology Choice 54 -- 3.6 Standards and Interoperability 83 -- 3.7 The Future 88 -- 3.8 Summary and Conclusions 92 -- References 93 -- Chapter 4 Technology Options for Enforcement 97 -- 4.1 Background 97 -- 4.2 Declarations 98 -- 4.3 Measurability and Enforceability 101 -- 4.4 Enforcement Strategy Options 104 -- 4.5 The Enforcement Process 119 -- 4.6 Examples 125 -- 4.7 Cross-Border Enforcement 128 -- 4.8 Innovation and Trends 128 -- 4.9 Summary 130 -- References 131 -- Chapter 5 Vehicle Detection and Classification 133 -- 5.1 Background 133 -- 5.2 Approaches to Detection and Classification 137 -- 5.3 Detection and Measurement Technologies 149 -- 5.4 Worked Examples 151 -- 5.5 The Future 155 -- 5.6 Summary and Conclusions 157 -- References 157 -- Selected Bibliography 159 -- Chapter 6 Central System 161 -- 6.1 Context 161 -- 6.2 The Role of a Central System 162 -- 6.3 The Operations Life Cycle 177 -- 6.4 Scalability 182 -- 6.5 System Architectures 185 -- 6.6 Economies of Scale 187 -- 6.7 Summary 191 -- References 192 -- Selected Bibliography 193 -- Chapter 7 Assembling the Pieces 195 -- 7.1 Background 195.

7.2 The Story So Far 195 -- 7.3 Context 196 -- 7.4 Timetable 210 -- 7.5 Procurement 212 -- 7.6 Perspectives 223 -- 7.7 Delivery and Operations 226 -- 7.8 Scaling 236 -- 7.9 The Future 238 -- 7.10 Summary 239 -- References 240 -- Chapter 8 Case Studies 243 -- 8.1 Introduction 243 -- 8.2 Urban Demand Management 243 -- 8.3 Small-Scale Toll Systems 254 -- 8.4 Regional and Interoperable Tolling 257 -- 8.5 Charging for HGVs 266 -- 8.6 HOT and HOV Lanes, United States 273 -- 8.7 Significant Trials and Pilots 275 -- References 288 -- Chapter 9 Future Developments 293 -- 9.1 Introduction 293 -- 9.2 New Communications and Location-Based Technologies 293 -- 9.3 Systems Innovations 306 -- 9.4 Intelligent Infrastructure 315 -- 9.5 Summary 328 -- References 330 -- Glossary 333 -- About the Authors 349 -- Index.