Front Cover -- Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Applications -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Contributors -- Part I Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Principles -- Chapter 1 Electromagnetic Principles of Ground Penetrating Radar -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Ground Penetrating Radar Basic Principles -- 1.2.1 Overview -- 1.2.2 Maxwell's equations -- 1.2.3 Constitutive equations -- 1.2.4 Material properties -- 1.3 Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Fields -- 1.3.1 Wave properties -- 1.3.2 Ground penetrating radar source near an interface -- 1.3.3 Reflection, refraction, and transmission at interfaces -- 1.3.4 Resolution and zone of influence -- 1.3.5 Scattering attenuation -- 1.4 Signal Measurement -- 1.4.1 Time ranges and bandwidth -- 1.4.2 Center frequency -- 1.4.3 Ground penetrating radar signal acquisition -- 1.4.4 Characterizing system response -- 1.4.5 Recording dynamic range -- 1.4.6 Antennas -- 1.4.7 Antenna directivity -- 1.4.8 Antenna shielding -- 1.5 Survey Methodology -- 1.5.1 Sampling criteria -- 1.5.2 Ground penetrating radar surveys -- 1.5.3 Common-offset reflection survey -- 1.5.4 Multioffset common midpoint/wide-angle reflection and refraction velocity sounding design -- 1.5.5 Transillumination surveys -- 1.6 Data Analysis and Interpretation -- 1.6.1 Dewow -- 1.6.2 Time gain -- 1.6.3 Deconvolution -- 1.6.4 Migration -- 1.6.5 Topographic correction -- 1.6.6 Two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization -- 1.7 Summary -- Chapter 2 Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Rocks, Soils and Fluids -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Electromagnetic Material Properties: Basic Theory -- 2.3 Permittivity and Conductivity - The Electrical Parameters of Dielectrics -- 2.3.1 Permittivity - ε -- 2.3.2 Conductivity - σ -- 2.3.3 Permeability μ - the magnetic parameters of dielectrics.

2.4 Material Properties - Relationship to Electromagnetic Wave Characteristics -- 2.4.1 Loss factor and skin depth -- 2.5 The Properties of Real Materials - Practical Evaluations -- 2.6 Characterising the Response of Real Materials -- 2.6.1 Basic mixing models -- 2.6.2 Volumetric and inclusion-based mixing models -- 2.7 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- Chapter 3 Ground Penetrating Radar Systems and Design -- 3.1 Introduction and Background -- 3.2 Methodology - Types of Ground Penetrating Radar -- 3.2.1 Impulse -- 3.2.2 Swept frequency-modulated continuous wave -- 3.2.3 Stepped frequency-modulated continuous wave -- 3.2.4 Gated, stepped frequency-modulated continuous wave -- 3.3 Radio Frequency Specifications and Definitions -- 3.3.1 Dynamic range -- 3.3.2 Bandwidth -- 3.3.3 Range resolution -- 3.3.4 Lateral resolution -- 3.3.5 Unambiguous range -- 3.4 General Design Criteria for Ground Penetrating Radar -- 3.4.1 System performance -- 3.5 Impulse Ground Penetrating Radar -- 3.5.1 Theory of operation: Impulse radar -- 3.5.2 System design parameters: impulse radar -- 3.5.3 Implementation of an impulse ground penetrating radar -- 3.6 Continuous-Wave Ground Penetrating Radar -- 3.6.1 Theory of operation - stepped-frequency, continuous-wave radar -- 3.6.2 System design parameters: stepped-frequency radar -- 3.6.3 Implementation of a gated, stepped-frequency, ground penetrating radar -- Chapter 4 Antennas -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Basic Antenna Parameters -- 4.2.1 Energy transfer from antennas -- 4.2.2 Gain -- 4.2.3 Directivity -- 4.2.4 Coupling energy into the ground -- 4.2.5 Antenna efficiency -- 4.2.6 Sidelobes and back lobes -- 4.2.7 Bandwidth -- 4.2.8 Polarisation - linear, elliptical, circular -- 4.2.9 Antenna phase centre -- 4.2.10 Antenna patterns -- 4.2.11 Time sidelobes and ring-down -- 4.2.12 Antenna footprint.

4.3 Antennas for Ground Penetrating Radar -- 4.3.1 Introduction -- 4.3.2 Coupling into a dielectric -- 4.3.3 Time domain antennas -- 4.3.4 Frequency domain antennas -- 4.3.5 Array antennas -- 4.4 Summary -- 4.5 Definitions -- Chapter 5 Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing, Modelling and Analysis -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Background and Practical Principles of Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing -- 5.3 Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing: Developing Good Practice -- 5.4 Basic Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing Steps -- 5.4.1 Data/trace editing and 'rubber-band' interpolation -- 5.4.2 Dewow filtering -- 5.4.3 Time-zero correction -- 5.4.4 Filtering -- 5.4.5 Deconvolution -- 5.4.6 Velocity analysis and depth conversion -- 5.4.7 Elevation or topographic corrections -- 5.4.8 Gain functions -- 5.4.9 Migration -- 5.4.10 Advanced imaging and analysis tools -- 5.4.11 Attribute analysis -- 5.4.12 Numerical modelling -- 5.5 Processing, Imaging and Visualisation: Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgements -- Part II Environmental Applications -- Chapter 6 Soils, Peatlands, and Biomonitoring -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Soils -- 6.2.1 Soil properties that affect the performance of ground penetrating radar -- 6.2.2 Soil suitability maps for ground penetrating radar -- 6.2.3 Ground penetrating data and soil surveys -- 6.2.4 Uses of ground penetrating radar in organic soils and peatlands -- 6.3 Biomonitoring -- Chapter 7 The Contribution of Ground Penetrating Radar to Water Resource Research -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Petrophysics -- 7.3 Hydrostratigraphic Characterization -- 7.4 Distribution/Zonation of Flow and Transport Parameters -- 7.5 Moisture Content Estimation -- 7.6 Monitoring Dynamic Hydrological Processes -- 7.6.1 Recharge/moisture content in the vadose zone -- 7.6.2 Water table detection/monitoring -- 7.6.3 Solute transport in fractures.

7.6.4 Studies of the hyporheic corridor -- 7.6.5 Studies of the rhizosphere -- 7.6.6 Carbon gas emissions from soils -- 7.7 Conclusions -- Chapter 8 Contaminant Mapping -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Contaminant Types -- 8.3 Electrical Properties of Contaminated Rock and Soil -- 8.3.1 Electrical properties of NAPLs -- 8.3.2 Electrical properties of soil and rock with NAPL contamination -- 8.3.3 Biodegradation effects -- 8.3.4 Inorganics -- 8.4 Typical Distribution of Contaminants -- 8.4.1 DNAPL -- 8.4.2 LNAPL -- 8.4.3 Inorganics -- 8.4.4 Saturated and unsaturated zone -- 8.5 GPR Methodology -- 8.6 Data Processing and Interpretation -- 8.6.1 Visualization -- 8.6.2 Trace attributes -- 8.6.3 Data differencing -- 8.6.4 AVO analysis -- 8.6.5 Detection based on frequency-dependent properties -- 8.6.6 Quantitative estimates of NAPL -- 8.7 Case Studies -- 8.7.1 Controlled DNAPL injection -- 8.7.2 Controlled LNAPL injection -- 8.7.3 Accidental spill sites -- 8.7.4 Leachate and waste disposal site characterization -- 8.8 Summary -- Terms for Glossary -- Part III Earth Science Applications -- Chapter 9 Ground Penetrating Radar in Aeolian Dune Sands -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Sand Dunes -- 9.3 Survey Design -- 9.3.1 Line spacing -- 9.3.2 Step size -- 9.3.3 Orientation -- 9.3.4 Survey direction -- 9.3.5 Vertical resolution -- 9.4 Topography -- 9.4.1 Topographic surveys -- 9.4.2 Topographic correction -- 9.4.3 Apparent dip -- 9.5 Imaging Sedimentary Structures and Dune Stratigraphy -- 9.6 Radar Facies -- 9.7 Radar Stratigraphy and Bounding Surfaces -- 9.8 Aeolian Bounding Surfaces -- 9.8.1 Reactivation surfaces -- 9.8.2 Superposition surfaces -- 9.8.3 Interdune surfaces -- 9.9 Dune Age and Migration -- 9.10 Stratigraphic Analysis -- 9.11 Ancient Aeolian Sandstones -- 9.12 Three-Dimensional Images -- 9.13 Pedogenic Alteration and Early Diagenesis -- 9.13.1 Evaporites.

9.13.2 Environmental noise -- 9.13.3 Diffractions -- 9.13.4 The water table -- 9.13.5 Multiples -- 9.14 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 10 Coastal Environments -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Methodology -- 10.3 Ground Penetrating Radar Strengths in Coastal Environments -- 10.4 Ground Penetrating Radar Limitations in Coastal Environments -- 10.5 Ground Penetrating Radar Studies in Coastal Environments -- 10.6 Examples of Ground Penetrating Radar Images from Coastal Environments -- 10.6.1 Record of coastal progradation -- 10.6.2 Signatures of coastal erosion -- 10.6.3 Coastal Paleochannels -- 10.6.4 Ground penetrating radar signal response to lithological anomalies in coastal dunes -- 10.6.5 Deltas -- 10.6.6 Reservoir characterization - hydrocarbon and hydrogeology -- 10.7 Summary -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 11 Advances in Fluvial Sedimentology using GPR -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Scales of Fluvial Deposits and GPR Resolution -- 11.3 Examples of Use of GPR in Fluvial Sedimentology -- 11.3.1 South Esk, Scotland -- 11.3.2 Calamus, Nebraska -- 11.3.3 Brahmaputra (Jamuna), Bangladesh -- 11.3.4 Niobrara, Nebraska -- 11.3.5 South Saskatchewan, Canada -- 11.3.6 Sagavanirktok, northern Alaska -- 11.3.7 Fraser and Squamish Rivers, Canada -- 11.3.8 Pleistocene outwash deposits in Europe -- 11.3.9 Mesozoic deposits of SW USA -- 11.4 Concluding Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 12 Glaciers and Ice Sheets -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Antarctica -- 12.2.1 Alpine glaciers: Dry valleys -- 12.2.2 Polar firn: West Antarctica -- 12.2.3 Englacial stratigraphy: West Antarctica -- 12.2.4 Ice shelf: McMurdo Sound -- 12.2.5 Crevasses: Ross Ice Shelf -- 12.3 Alaska -- 12.3.1 Temperate valley glacier: Matanuska Glacier -- 12.3.2 Temperate valley glacier: Gulkana Glacier -- 12.3.3 Temperate firn: Bagley Ice Field, Alaska.

12.3.4 Temperate hydrology: Black Rapids Glacier.