Front Cover -- Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- About the Authors -- 1. Introduction to Paleobotany, How Fossil Plants are Formed -- What Is Paleobotany? -- The Objectives of Paleobotany -- Reconstructing the Plants -- Evolution of Plant Groups -- Form and Function in Fossil Plants -- Biostratigraphy and Correlation -- Paleoecology: Plants in Their Environment -- Determining Paleoclimate from Fossil Plants -- Summary -- Preservation: How Plant Fossils are Formed and Preserved -- Depositional Environments of Fossil Plants -- Compressions -- Coal and Charcoal -- Impressions -- Molds and Casts -- Cellular Preservation -- Unaltered Plant Material -- Summary Discussion -- Palynology -- Absolute Dating -- Geologic Timescale -- Biological Correlation -- Systematics and Classification -- Background Reading -- 2. Precambrian Life -- The Origin of Life on Earth -- Origin of Life: Theory and Biology -- Earliest Record of Life on Earth -- Historical Background -- Earliest Records of Life: Paleoarchean (3.6-3.2 Ga) -- Mesoarchean-Neoarchean Life -- Conclusions: Archean Life -- Oxygenation of the Earth (2.45-2.2 Ga) -- Proterozoic Life -- Conclusions -- 3. Fungi, Bacteria, and Lichens -- Fungi -- Earliest Fossil Fungi -- Systematics of Fungi -- Fungal Life-History Strategies -- Fungi-Animal Interactions -- Geologic Activities of Fungi -- Epiphyllous Fungi -- Fungal Spores -- Fungal-like Organisms -- Eubacteria and Archaea -- Archaea -- Eubacteria -- Lichens -- 4. Algae -- Chlorophyta (Green Algae) -- Prasinophyceae -- Chlorophyceae -- Ulvophyceae -- Charophyceae -- Euglenophyta -- Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates) -- Heterokontophyta -- Prymnesiophyta (Haptophytes) -- Rhodophyta (Red Algae) -- Acritarcha (Acritarchs) -- 5. Hornworts and Bryophytes -- Early Fossil Evidence.

Anthocerotophyta (Hornworts) -- Bryophyta (Bryophytes) -- Marchantiophytina (Liverworts or Hepatophytes) -- Bryophytina (Mosses) -- 6. The Move to the Land -- Enigmatic Organisms -- Nematophytes -- Spongiophytaceae -- Other Enigmatic Organisms -- Isolated Fragments: Clues to the Transition to Land? -- Cuticle and Cuticle-Like Material -- Spores and Spore Tetrads -- Tubes -- Land Plant Ancestors -- The Transition to Land -- Anchorage and Water Uptake -- Structural Support and Water Transport -- Protection Against Desiccation and Radiation -- Gas Exchange -- Reproduction on Land -- Life History Biology -- Animals -- A Fungal Partner -- Conclusion -- 7. Introduction to Vascular Plant Morphology and Anatomy -- Plant Organography -- Cell Types -- Parenchyma -- Collenchyma -- Sclerenchyma -- Sieve Elements -- Plant Tissues and Primary Growth -- Xylem Tissue -- Phloem Tissue -- Meristems -- Epidermis -- Anatomy of Stems and Roots -- Arrangement of Primary Tissues -- Primary Xylem Maturation Patterns -- Secondary Development -- Stele Types -- Leaf Morphology and Anatomy -- Leaf Anatomy -- Leaf Evolution -- Further Reading -- 8. Early Land Plants with Conducting Tissue -- Conducting Elements in Early Land Plants -- History of Discovery -- Rhyniophytes -- Rhynie Chert Plants -- Gametophyte Generation -- Other Rhyniophytes -- Discussion: Rhyniophyte Evolution -- Zosterophyllophytes -- Zosterophyll Evolution -- Trimerophytes -- Trimerophyte Evolution -- Early Land Plant Evolution -- 9. Lycophyta -- Evolution of the Microphyll -- Drepanophycales -- Protolepidodendrales -- Lepidodendrales -- Vegetative Features -- Reproductive Biology -- Sigillariaceae -- Other Lepidodendrid Genera -- Lycopodiales -- Selaginellales -- Pleuromeiales -- Isoetales -- Putative Lycopsids -- Conclusions -- 10. Sphenophytes -- Pseudoborniales -- Sphenophyllales.

Devonian Sphenophyllales -- Sphenophyllum -- Other Sphenophyllales -- Ecology -- Equisetales -- Calamitaceae -- Tchernoviaceae and Gondwanostachyaceae -- Equisetaceae -- Forms with Uncertain Affinities -- Sphenophyte Evolution -- 11. Ferns and Early Fernlike Plants -- Evolution of the Megaphyll -- Cladoxylopsida -- Pseudosporochnales -- Iridopteridales -- Phylogenetic Position of the Cladoxylopsids -- Early Fernlike Plants -- Rhacophytales -- Systematics of the Rhacophytales -- Coenopterid Ferns -- Stauropteridales -- Zygopteridales -- Marattiales -- Psaroniaceae: Vegetative Features -- Psaroniaceae: Reproductive Features -- Paleozoic Compression Taxa -- Mesozoic Marattialeans -- Marattialean Evolution -- Ophioglossales -- Leptosporangiate Ferns -- Osmundales -- Botryopteridaceae -- Anachoropteridaceae -- Kaplanopteridaceae -- Psalixochlaenaceae -- Sermayaceae -- Tedeleaceae -- Skaaripteridaceae -- Tempskyaceae -- Schizaeaceae -- Hymenophyllaceae -- Gleicheniaceae -- Dicksoniaceae -- Cyatheaceae -- Matoniaceae -- Loxsomataceae -- Dipteridaceae -- Polypodiales -- Salviniales -- Marsileaceae -- Salviniaceae -- Conclusions -- 12. Progymnosperms -- Archaeopteridales -- Archaeopteris Leaves -- Archaeopterid Reproduction -- Callixylon Stems -- Other Archaeopterids -- Aneurophytales -- Aneurophyton -- Tetraxylopteris -- Triloboxylon -- Rellimia -- Other Aneurophytes -- Protopityales -- Noeggerathians -- Progymnosperm Evolution -- 13. Origin and Evolution of the Seed Habit -- Homospory, Heterospory, and the Seed Habit -- Homospory -- Heterospory -- Seed Habit -- Cupulate Devonian Seeds -- Reproductive Biology -- Carboniferous Seeds -- Pollen Chamber Function -- Microgametophytes -- Diversity of Early Seeds -- Paleozoic Seeds with Embryos -- 14. Paleozoic Seed Ferns -- Calamopityales -- Buteoxylonales -- Lyginopteridales -- Lyginopteris Plant.

Other Lyginopterids: Vegetative Remains -- Other Lyginopterids: Seeds and Cupules -- Other Lyginopterids: Pollen Organs -- Incertae Sedis -- Lyginopterid Evolution -- Medullosales -- Stems -- Leaves (Fronds) -- Roots -- Growth Habit -- Seeds -- Pollen Organs -- Pollen -- Medullosan Evolution -- Callistophytales -- Vegetative Organs -- Reproductive Structures -- Callistophytalean Evolution -- Glossopteridales -- Leaves -- Stems and Roots -- Ovulate Reproductive Structures -- Pollen Organs -- Glossopteris Habit and Habitat -- Phylogenetic Position -- 15. Mesozoic Seed Ferns -- Caytoniales -- Sagenopteris -- Caytonanthus -- Caytonia -- Ruflorinia and Ktalenia -- Corystospermales -- Foliage -- Stems -- Pollen Organs -- Ovulate Structures -- Petriellales -- Peltaspermales -- Foliage -- Reproductive Organs and Whole-Plant Concepts -- Conclusions -- 16. Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic Foliage -- Late Paleozoic Foliage -- Adiantites -- Alethopteris -- Aneimites -- Aphlebia -- Alloiopteris -- Botrychiopsis -- Callipteridium -- Cardiopteridium -- Cardiopteris (Fryopsis) -- Charliea -- Cyclopteris -- Dicksoniites -- Discopteris -- Eremopteris -- Ginkgophytopsis -- Kankakeea -- Karinopteris, Mariopteris, and Pseudomariopteris -- Lesleya -- Linopteris, Reticulopteris, and Barthelopteris -- Lobatopteris -- Lonchopteridium and Lonchopteris -- Megalopteris -- Neuropteris sensu lato -- Nothorhacopteris -- Odontopteris and Lescuropteris -- Pecopteris -- Rhodea (=Rhodeopteridium) -- Sphenopteris -- Spiropteris -- Taeniopteris -- Tinsleya -- Triphyllopteris, Genselia, and Charbeckia -- Mesozoic Foliage -- Anomozamites -- Cladophlebis -- Coniopteris -- Ctenis -- Deltolepis and Cycadolepis -- Dictyophyllum -- Dictyozamites -- Doratophyllum -- Macrotaeniopteris -- Matonidium -- Mesodescolea -- Nilssonia -- Nilssoniopteris -- Otozamites.

Pachypteris, Komlopteris, and Thinnfeldia -- Phlebopteris -- Pseudoctenis -- Pseudocycas -- Pterophyllum -- Ptilophyllum -- Ptilozamites -- Ruflorinia -- Taeniozamites -- Ticoa -- Wingatea -- Yabeiella -- Zamites -- 17. Cycadophytes -- Cycadales -- Leaves and Petioles -- Stems -- Paleozoic Reproductive Structures -- Triassic Cycads -- Jurassic Cycads -- Pollination Biology -- Discussion: Cycad Evolution -- Bennettitales -- Cycadeoidaceae -- Williamsoniaceae -- Discussion: Bennettitales -- 18. Ginkgophytes -- Paleozoic Record -- Ginkgophyte Wood -- Ginkgophyte Foliage -- Pollen-Producing Structures -- Ginkgophyte Plants -- Ginkgoaceae -- Karkeniaceae -- Umaltolepidiaceae -- Yimaiaceae -- Schmeissneriaceae -- Taxa with Uncertain Affinities -- Conclusions -- 19. Gymnosperms with Obscure Affinities -- Gigantopteridales -- Vegetative Remains -- Reproductive Organs -- Vojnovskyales -- Czekanowskiales -- Iraniales -- Pentoxylales -- Hermanophytales -- Gnetales -- Extant Genera -- Extant Reproductive Structures -- Fossil Gnetophyte Pollen -- Gnetophyte Megafossils -- Putative Gnetophytes -- Dirhopalostachyaceae -- 20. Cordaitales -- Vegetative Features -- Stems -- Foliage -- Roots -- Reproductive Features -- Reproductive Organs -- Seeds -- Angaran Cordaites -- Phylogenetic Position and Origin of the Cordaites -- 21. Conifers -- Early Conifers -- Voltziales -- Utrechtiaceae -- Thucydiaceae -- Emporiaceae -- Majonicaceae -- Ullmanniaceae -- Bartheliaceae -- Other Voltzialeans -- Ferugliocladaceae -- Buriadiaceae -- Pollen Cones -- Summary Discussion: Voltziales -- Coniferales -- Palissyaceae -- Cheirolepidiaceae -- Summary Discussion: Cheirolepidiaceae -- Podocarpaceae -- Summary Discussion: Podocarpaceae -- Araucariaceae -- Summary Discussion: Araucariaceae -- Cupressaceae -- Summary Discussion: Cupressaceae -- Sciadopityaceae -- Pararaucariaceae -- Pinaceae.

Summary Discussion: Pinaceae.