Fundamentals of Seismic Loading on Structures -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- 1 Introduction to Earthquakes -- 1.1 A Historical Perspective -- 1.1.1 Seismic Areas of the World -- 1.1.2 Types of Failure -- 1.1.3 Fault Movement and its Destructive Action -- 1.2 The Nature of Earthquakes -- 1.3 Plate Tectonics -- 1.3.1 Types of Plate Boundaries -- 1.3.2 Convergent and Divergent Boundaries -- 1.3.3 Seismicity and Plate Tectonics -- 1.4 Focus and Epicentre -- 1.5 Seismic Waves -- 1.5.1 Body Waves -- 1.5.2 Surface Waves -- 1.6 Seismometers -- 1.6.1 Early Seismographs -- 1.6.2 Modern Developments -- 1.6.3 Locating the Epicentre -- 1.7 Magnitude and Intensity -- 1.7.1 Magnitude Scales -- 1.7.2 Seismic Moment -- 1.7.3 Intensity Scales -- 1.8 Reid's Elastic Rebound Theory -- 1.9 Significant Milestones in Earthquake Engineering -- 1.10 Seismic Tomography -- 1.10.1 The Challenges Ahead -- 1.11 References -- 2 Single Degree of Freedom Systems -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Free Vibration -- 2.2.1 Equations of Motion with Damping -- 2.2.2 Damping Ratio -- 2.2.3 Treatment of Initial Conditions -- 2.3 Periodic Forcing Function -- 2.3.1 Magnification Factors -- 2.3.2 Damping -- 2.3.3 Support Motion -- 2.4 Arbitrary Forcing Function -- 2.4.1 Duhamel Integral -- 2.4.2 Numerical Evaluation -- 2.4.3 Worked Example - Duhamel Integral -- 2.5 References -- 3 Systems with Many Degrees of Freedom -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Lumped Parameter Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom -- 3.3 Lumped Parameter Systems with more than Two Degrees of Freedom -- 3.3.1 Free Vibration -- 3.3.2 A Worked Example (Two degrees of Freedom System) -- 3.3.3 Normalization of Mode Shapes -- 3.3.4 Orthogonality of Mode Shapes -- 3.3.5 Worked Example - Orthogonality Check -- 3.4 Mode Superposition -- 3.4.1 Use of Normal or Generalized Coordinates -- 3.5 Damping Orthogonality.

3.6 Non-linear Dynamic Analysis -- 3.6.1 Introduction -- 3.6.2 Incremental Integration Process -- 3.6.3 Numerical Procedures for Integration -- 3.6.4 Estimate of Errors -- 3.6.5 Houbolt's Method -- 3.6.6 Explicit and Implicit Scheme -- 3.6.7 Minimum Time Step t (Explicit Integration Scheme) -- 3.7 References -- 4 Basics of Random Vibrations -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Concepts of Probability -- 4.2.1 Random Variable Space -- 4.2.2 Gaussian or Normal Distribution -- 4.2.3 Worked Example with Standard Normal Variable -- 4.3 Harmonic Analysis -- 4.3.1 Introduction -- 4.3.2 Fourier Series (Robson, 1963) -- 4.3.3 Fourier Integrals (Robson, 1963, with permission) -- 4.3.4 Spectral Density (Robson, 1963) -- 4.4 Numerical Integration Scheme for Frequency Content -- 4.4.1 Introducing Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) -- 4.5 A Worked Example (Erzincan, 1992) -- 4.6 References -- 5 Ground Motion Characteristics -- 5.1 Characteristics of Ground Motion -- 5.1.1 Ground Motion Particulars -- 5.1.2 After Shocks and Before Shocks -- 5.1.3 Earthquake Source Model -- 5.1.4 Empirical Relations of Source Parameters -- 5.2 Ground Motion Parameters -- 5.2.1 The Nature and Attenuation of Ground Motion -- 5.2.2 PGA and Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) -- 5.2.3 Engineering Models of Attenuation Relationships -- 5.2.4 Next Generation Attenuation (NGA) Models for Shallow Crustal Earthquakes in Western United States (2008) -- 5.3 References -- 6 Introduction to Response Spectra -- 6.1 General Concepts -- 6.1.1 A Designer's Perspective -- 6.1.2 A Practical Way Forward -- 6.1.3 Constructing Tripartite Plots -- 6.2 Design Response Spectra -- 6.2.1 AWorked Example: An MDOF System Subjected to Earthquake Loading -- 6.3 Site Dependent Response Spectra -- 6.3.1 The Design Process -- 6.3.2 Practical Example: Construction of a Site Dependent Response Spectrum.

6.4 Inelastic Response Spectra -- 6.4.1 Response Spectra: A Cautionary Note -- 6.5 References -- 7 Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 Seismic Hazard Analysis (SHA) -- 7.1.2 Features of PSHA -- 7.2 Basic Steps in Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) -- 7.2.1 Historical Seismicity -- 7.2.2 Geology, Tectonics, Identification of Earthquake Source and the Geometry -- 7.2.3 Modelling Recurrence Laws -- 7.2.4 Gutenberg-Richter Recurrence Law -- 7.2.5 Alternative Models -- 7.2.6 Why the Gutenberg-Richter Model? -- 7.2.7 Ground Motion Parameter (peak acceleration, velocity etc.) -- 7.2.8 Local Soil Conditions -- 7.2.9 Temporal Model (or the arrival process) -- 7.2.10 Poisson Model -- 7.3 Guide to Analytical Steps -- 7.3.1 Multiple Point Sources -- 7.3.2 Area Source -- 7.3.3 Line Source -- 7.4 PSHA as Introduced by Cornell -- 7.4.1 Line Source Illustration Problem (Cornell, 1968) -- 7.5 Monte Carlo Simulation Techniques -- 7.5.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Process - An Insight -- 7.5.2 Example: Point Source (extracted from Cornell, 1968) -- 7.6 Construction of Uniform Hazard Spectrum -- 7.6.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Plots for Peak Ground Acceleration -- 7.6.2 Procedure for Construction of Uniform Hazard Response Spectrum -- 7.6.3 Further Attenuation Equations -- 7.7 Further Computational Considerations -- 7.7.1 De-aggregation - An Introduction -- 7.7.2 Computational Scheme for De-aggregation -- 7.7.3 Logic-Tree Simulation - An Introduction -- 7.7.4 Lest We Forget . . . -- 7.8 References -- 8 Code Provisions -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Historical Development -- 8.2 Static Force Procedure -- 8.2.1 Base Shear Method -- 8.3 IBC 2006 -- 8.3.1 Introducing Mapped Spectral Accelerations -- 8.3.2 Dynamic Analysis Procedures -- 8.4 Eurocode 8 -- 8.4.1 A Worked Example -- 8.5 A Worked Example (IBC 2000) -- 8.5.1 General.

8.5.2 Design Criteria -- 8.5.3 Design Basis -- 8.5.4 Gravity Loads and Load Combinations -- 8.5.5 Gravity Load Analysis -- 8.5.6 Load Combinations For Design -- 8.5.7 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure (1617.4) -- 8.5.8 Vertical Distribution of Base Shear (1617.4.3) -- 8.5.9 Lateral Analysis -- 8.5.10 Modification of Approximate Period -- 8.5.11 Revised Design Base Shear -- 8.5.12 Results of Analysis -- 8.5.13 Storey Drift Limitation -- 8.5.14 P − Effects -- 8.5.15 Redundancy Factor, ρ, (1617.2) -- 8.5.16 Dynamic Analysis Procedure (response spectrum analysis) -- 8.5.17 Mode Shapes -- 8.5.18 Verification of Results from SAP 2000 -- 8.5.19 Lm and Mm for each mode shape -- 8.5.20 Modal Seismic Design Coefficients, Csm -- 8.5.21 Base Shear using Modal Analysis -- 8.5.22 Design Base Shear using Static Procedure -- 8.5.23 Scaling of Elastic Response Parameters for Design -- 8.5.24 Distribution of Base Shear -- 8.5.25 Lateral Analysis -- 8.5.26 Storey Drift Limitation -- 8.5.27 P − Effects -- 8.5.28 Redundancy Factor, ρ -- 8.6 References -- 9 Inelastic Analysis and Design Concepts (with Particular Reference to H-Sections) -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Behaviour of Beam Columns -- 9.2.1 Short or Stocky Beam Column -- 9.2.2 Long or Intermediate Length Beam Column -- 9.3 Full Scale Laboratory Tests -- 9.3.1 Test Results -- 9.3.2 Mode of Failure -- 9.3.3 Experimental Plots -- 9.4 Concepts and Issues: Frames Subjected to Seismic Loading -- 9.5 Proceeding with Dynamic Analysis (MDOF systems) -- 9.5.1 Lateral Torsional Buckling -- 9.5.2 Column Strength Curves -- 9.5.3 Dynamic Analysis -- 9.6 Behaviour of Steel Members under Cyclic Loading -- 9.6.1 FE Analysis -- 9.6.2 A Note on Connections -- 9.6.3 A Note on the Factors Affecting the Strength of Columns -- 9.7 Energy Dissipating Devices -- 9.7.1 Introduction -- 9.7.2 Current Practice.

9.7.3 Damping Devices in Use -- 9.7.4 Analytical Guidelines Currently Available -- 9.8 References -- 10 Soil-Structure Interaction Issues -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Definition of the Problem -- 10.2.1 Important Features of Soil-Structure Interaction -- 10.2.2 Ground Responses Observed During Earthquakes -- 10.3 Damaging Effects due to Amplification -- 10.3.1 Mexico City (1985) Earthquake -- 10.3.2 Loma Prieta (1989) Earthquake -- 10.4 Damaging Effects Due to Liquefaction -- 10.4.1 Design Implications for Piles due to Liquefaction -- 10.5 References -- 11 Liquefaction -- 11.1 Definition and Description -- 11.1.1 Geotechnical Aspects of Liquefaction -- 11.2 Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance -- 11.2.1 Analytical Procedure - Empirical Formulation (Seed and Idriss, 1971) -- 11.2.2 A Simplified Method (Seed and Idriss, 1971) -- 11.3 Liquefaction Analysis - Worked Example -- 11.3.1 Problem Definition -- 11.3.2 Case Study - Using Field Data -- 11.4 SPT Correlation for Assessing Liquefaction -- 11.4.1 Current State of the Art -- 11.4.2 Most Recent Work -- 11.4.3 Worked Example with SPT Procedure (Idriss and Boulanger, 2004) -- 11.5 Influence of Fines Content -- 11.6 Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential of Clay (cohesive) Soil -- 11.6.1 Fresh Evidence of Liquefaction of Cohesive Soils -- 11.7 Construction of Foundations of Structures in the Earthquake Zones Susceptible to Liquefaction -- 11.8 References -- 12 Performance Based Seismic Engineering - An Introduction -- 12.1 Preamble -- 12.2 Background to Current Developments -- 12.2.1 Efforts in the USA -- 12.2.2 Efforts in Japan -- 12.2.3 Efforts in Europe -- 12.3 Performance-Based Methodology -- 12.3.1 Performance Objectives -- 12.3.2 Performance Levels -- 12.3.3 Performance Objectives -- 12.3.4 Hazard Levels (design ground motions) -- 12.4 Current Analysis Procedures -- 12.4.1 ATC Commentary.

12.4.2 Displacement Design Procedures.