Cover -- Preface -- Contents -- Chapter 1 Introduction and Scope -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Historical Development of Microbiology-Milestones -- 1.2.1 The Microscope -- 1.2.2 Spontaneous Generation Vs Biogenesis -- 1.2.3 Fermentation -- 1.2.4 Germ Theory -- 1.2.5 Classical Laboratory Methods and Pure Cultures -- 1.2.6 Immunity -- 1.2.7 Medical Microbiology -- 1.2.8 Pharmaceutical Microbiology -- 1.2.9 Industrial Microbiology -- 1.2.10 Emergence of Molecular Biology -- 1.2.11 Emergence of Virology -- 1.2.12 Microorganisms as Geochemical Agents -- 1.2.13 Microbiology in the New Millennium -- Chapter 2 Structure and Function: Bacterial Cells -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Characteristic Features -- 2.2.1 Shape -- 2.2.2 Size -- 2.2.3 Reproduction -- 2.2.4 Formation of Colony -- 2.2.5 Mutation -- 2.2.6 Motility -- 2.2.7 Food and Oxygen Requirements -- 2.2.8 Temperature Requirements -- 2.3 Activities -- 2.4 Organization of Microbial Cells -- 2.4.1 Types of Cells -- 2.4.1.1 Eukaryotic Cells -- 2.4.1.2 Prokaryotic Cells -- 2.5 Archaeobacteria and Eubacteria -- 2.5.1 Methanogenic Bacteria (Methanogens) -- 2.5.2 Extreme Halophiles -- 2.5.3 Thermoacidophiles -- 2.5.3.1 Thermoplasma -- 2.5.3.2 Sulfolobus -- 2.6 The Bacterial Cells -- 2.6.1 Typical Bacterial Cell -- 2.6.2 Capsules and Slimes -- 2.6.3 Flagella and Fimbria -- 2.6.3.1 Flagella -- 2.6.3.2 Fimbriae (or Pili*) -- 2.6.4 Cell Envelope -- 2.6.5 Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria -- 2.6.6 Significance of Teichoic Acids -- 2.6.7 The Cell Membrane -- 2.6.8 Bacterial Cytoplasm -- 2.6.9 Ribosomes -- 2.6.10 Cellular Reserve Materials -- Chapter 3 Characterization, Classification and Taxonomy of Microbes -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Characterization -- 3.2.1 Morphological Characteristics -- 3.2.2 Chemical Characteristics -- 3.2.3 Cultural Characteristics -- 3.2.4 Metabolic Characteristics.

3.2.5 Antigenic Characteristics -- 3.2.6 Genetic Characteristics -- 3.2.6.1 DNA Base Composition -- 3.2.6.2 Sequence of Nucleotide Bases in DNA -- 3.2.7 Pathogenicity -- 3.2.8 Ecological Characteristics -- 3.3 Classification -- 3.3.1 Difficulties Encountered in Classification of Microorganisms -- 3.3.2 Objectives of Classification -- 3.3.3 Genetic Methods of Classifying Microbes -- 3.3.3.1 Genetic Relatedness -- 3.3.3.2 The Intuitive Method -- 3.3.3.3 Numerical Taxonomy -- 3.3.4 Systematized Classification -- 3.3.4.1 Natural Classification -- 3.3.4.2 Phyletic* Classification -- 3.3.4.3 Linnean Binomial Scheme -- 3.3.4.4 Phenotypic Classification -- 3.3.4.5 Microscopic Examination -- 3.3.4.6 Cataloguing rRNA* -- 3.3.4.7 Computer Aided Classification -- 3.3.4.8 Bacterial Classification -- 3.4 Taxonomy -- 3.5 The Kingdom Prokaryotae -- 3.5.1 Actinomycetes -- 3.5.1.1 General Characteristics -- 3.5.1.2 Significance of Actinomycetes -- 3.5.1.3 Classification -- 3.5.1.3.1 Whole Cell Carbohydrate Patterns of Aerobic Actinomycetes -- 3.5.1.3.2 Major Constituents of Cell Wall Types of Actinomycetes -- 3.5.1.3.3 Groups of Actinomycetes Based on Whole Cell Carbohydrate Pattern and Cell Wall Type -- 3.5.1.3.4 Actinomycetes with Multiocular** Sporangia*** -- 3.5.1.4 Actinomycetes and Related Organisms -- 3.5.1.4.1 Group -- 3.5.1.4.2 Genus -- 3.5.1.4.3 Order -- 3.5.1.4.4 Family -- 3.5.2 Becteria -- 3.5.2.1 Salient Features -- 3.5.2.2 Structure and Form of the Bacterial Cell -- 3.5.2.2.1 Size and Shape -- 3.5.2.2.2 Structure -- 3.5.3 Rickettsia and Coxiella -- 3.5.4 Spirochaetes -- Chapter 4 Identification of Microorganisms -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Morphology -- 4.3 Selective and Diagnostic Media -- 4.3.1 Differential Media -- 4.3.1.1 Eosin Methylene Blue Agar -- 4.3.1.2 MacConkey Agar -- 4.3.1.3 Hektoen Enteric Agar [HE-Agar] -- 4.3.2 Enrichment Media.

4.3.2.1 Blood Agar* -- 4.3.2.2 Chocolate Agar -- 4.3.3 Characteristic Media -- 4.3.3.1 Triple Sugar Iron Agar [TSI-Agar] -- 4.4 Cultural Characteristics -- 4.5 Biochemical Tests (or Properties) -- 4.5.1 Carbohydrate (sugar) Fermentation -- 4.5.2 Litmus Milk -- 4.5.3 Indole Production -- 4.5.4 Methyl Red Test [MR-Test] -- 4.5.5 Voges-Proskauer Test [VP-Test] -- 4.5.6 Citrate Utilization -- 4.5.7 Nitrate Reduction -- 4.5.8 Ammonia Production -- 4.5.9. Urease Test -- 4.5.10. Production of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) -- 4.5.11. Reduction of Methylene Blue*** -- 4.5.12. Production of Catalase [Tube Catalase Test] -- 4.5.13. Oxidase Reaction -- 4.5.14 Egg-Yolk Reaction -- 4.5.15. Growth in Presence of Potassium Cyanide (KCN) -- 4.5.16. Composite Media -- 4.6 Profile of Microbial Stains -- 4.6.1 Preparation of Bacterial Specimens for Light Microscopy -- 4.6.1.1 Stained Preparations -- 4.6.1.2. Preparation of Smears for Staining -- 4.6.1.3. Gram Staining -- 4.6.1.4. Differential Staining -- 4.6.1.4.1. Gram's Stain -- 4.6.1.4.2. Acid-Fast Stain -- 4.6.1.5. Miscellaneous Staining -- 4.6.1.5.1. Capsule Staining -- 4.6.1.5.2. Endospore (Spore) Staining -- 4.6.1.5.3. Flagella Staining -- 4.6.2. Microscopy : The Different Instruments -- 4.6.2.1 Concepts -- 4.6.2.2. Microscope Variants -- 4.6.2.2.1. Bright-Field Microscope -- 4.6.2.2.2. Dark-Field Microscope -- 4.6.2.2.3. Phase-Contrast Microscope -- 4.6.2.2.4. Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscope -- 4.6.2.2.5. Fluorescence Microscope -- 4.6.2.2.6. Electron Microscope -- 4.6.2.2.6.1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) -- 4.6.2.2.6.2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) -- Chapter 5 Nutrition, Cultivation and Isolation : Bacteria-Actinomycetes-Fungi-Viruses -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Bacteria -- 5.2.1 Nutrition of Microorganisms (Bacteria) -- 5.2.2 Cultivation (Growth) of Bacteria.

5.2.2.1. Binary Fission -- 5.2.2.2. Normal Growth Curve of Microorganisms -- 5.2.2.3. The Lag Phase of Microbial Growth -- 5.2.2.4. Translational Periods Between Various Growth Phases -- 5.2.2.5. Synchronous Growth -- 5.2.2.6. Effect of Nutrient Concentration Vs Growth Rate of Becterial Culture -- 5.2.2.7. Growth Determining Techniques -- 5.2.3. Isolation of Bacteria -- 5.2.3.1. Selective and Diagnostic Media -- 5.2.3.2. Bismuth Sulphate Agar -- 5.2.3.3 Selective Media for Staphylococci -- 5.3 Actinomycetes -- 5.4 Fungi -- 5.4.1 Reproduction of Fungi -- 5.4.1.1. Asexual Reproduction -- 5.4.1.2. Sexual Reproduction -- 5.4.2. Industrial Importance of Fungi -- 5.4.2.1. Production of Wines and Beer -- 5.4.2.2. Production of Bakery Products -- 5.4.2.3. Production of Cheeses -- 5.5. Viruses -- 5.5.1. Bacteriophages -- 5.5.2. Growth of Bacteriophages in the Laboratory -- 5.5.3. Bacteriophage Lambda : The Lysogenic Cycle -- Chapter 6 Microbial Genetics and Variations -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Microbial Genetics -- 6.2.1. Structure and Function of Genetic Material -- 6.2.2. Genotype and Phenotype -- 6.2.3. Adaptation and Mutation -- 6.2.4. DNA and Chromosomes -- 6.2.5. DNA Replication -- 6.2.6. Rate of DNA Replication -- 6.2.7. Flow of Genetic Information -- 6.2.8. Bacterial Transformation -- 6.2.9. Bacterial Transcription -- 6.2.10. Bacterial Translation -- 6.2.11. Bacterial Conjugation -- 6.2.12. Bacterial Transduction -- 6.2.12.1 Generalized Transduction -- 6.2.12.2 Specialized Transduction -- 6.2.13. Bacterial Transfection -- 6.2.14. Phage Conversion -- 6.3 Microbial Variations [Genetic Manipulation in Microorganisms] -- Chapter 7 Microbial Control by Physical and Chemical Methods -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Physical Methods -- 7.2.1. Heat -- 7.2.2. Moist Heat -- 7.2.2.1. Boiling -- 7.2.2.2. Autoclaving -- 7.2.2.3. Pasteurization.

7.2.2.4. Dry-Heat Sterilization -- 7.2.2.5. Filtration -- 7.2.2.6. Cold -- 7.2.2.7. Desiccation -- 7.2.2.8. Osmotic Pressure -- 7.2.2.9. Radiation -- 7.2.2.9.1. Ionizing Radiation -- 7.2.2.9.2. Nonionizing Radiation -- 7.3 Chemical Methods -- 7.3.1 Effective Disinfection-Fundamentals -- 7.3.2. Disinfectant-Critical Evaluation -- 7.3.2.1. Use-Dilution Tests -- 7.3.2.2. Filter Paper Method -- 7.3.3. Disinfectant Variants -- 7.3.3.1. Alcohols -- 7.3.3.2. Aldehydes -- 7.3.3.3. Chlorohexidine -- 7.3.3.4. Gaseous Chemosterilizers -- 7.3.3.5. Heavy Metals and Derivatives -- 7.3.3.6. Halogens -- 7.3.3.7. Organic Acids and Derivatives -- 7.3.3.8. Oxidizing Agents -- 7.3.3.9. Phenol and Phenolics -- 7.3.3.10. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds [QUATS] -- 7.3.3.11. Surface-Active Agents -- 7.4 Experimental Parameters Influencing the Antimicrobial Agent Activity -- 7.4.1 Population Size -- 7.4.2 Population Composition -- 7.4.3 Concentration of Antimicrobial Agent -- 7.4.4. Duration of Exposure -- 7.4.5. Temperature -- 7.4.6. Local Environment -- Chapter 8 Sterility Testing : Pharmaceutical Products -- 8.1. Introduction -- 8.2. Test for Sterility : Pharmaceutical Products -- 8.2.1. Membrane Filtration -- 8.2.2. Direct Inoculation -- 8.2.2.1. Nutrient Broth -- 8.2.2.2. Cooked Meat Medium and Thioglycollate Medium -- 8.2.2.3. Sabouaud Medium -- 8.3 Sampling : Probability Profile -- 8.4 Overall Conclusions -- Chapter 9 Immune Systems -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1. Discrimination -- 9.1.2. Specificity -- 9.1.3. Anamnesis -- 9.1.4. Transferability by Living Cells -- 9.2 Types of Specific Immunity -- 9.2.1 Acquired Immunity -- 9.2.2. Active Immunity -- 9.2.3. Cell-Mediated Immunity -- 9.2.4. Congenital Immunity -- 9.2.5. Herd Immunity -- 9.2.6. Humoral Immunity -- 9.2.7. Local Immunity -- 9.2.8. Natural Immunity -- 9.2.9 Passive Immunity -- 9.3. Duality of Immune System.

9.4. Immunological Memory.