Contents -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- Chapter 1 Introduction -- 1. The Schengen Information System and Other EU Databases: Tools for Border and Immigration Control -- 2. Problem -- 3. A Right to Effective Remedies? -- 3.1. Questions -- 3.2. Criteria to Assess Availability of Eff ective Remedies -- 4. Outline -- 5. Definitions and Explanation of Used Terms -- 6. Sources and Interviewees -- Part I Border Control and Data Surveillance in the EU -- Chapter 2 Towards Schengen: Th e Abolition of Internal Border Controls in Europe -- 1. Introduction: Abolition of Internal Border Controls -- 2. The Internal Market and the Free Movement of Persons: Setting Goals -- 2.1. Between 1957 and 1985: From the Treaty of Rome to the Commission's White Paper -- 2.2. Th e Commission's White Paper on the Completion of the Internal Market -- 3. From 1985 to the Completion of the Single Market: Defining Powers -- 4. Intergovernmental Negotiations on the Abolition of Internal Border Controls -- 4.1. Other Examples: The Benelux, the Nordic Union, Ireland and the United Kingdom -- 4.2. Between 1985 and 1989: The Schengen Negotiations -- 4.3. The Immigration Ad Hoc Group, Trevi, and the Group of Co-ordinators -- 5. Abolition of Border Controls and Compensatory Measures -- 5.1. The Function of Borders: Emphasis on Internal Security and Immigration Control -- 5.2. Pre-Border Selection: Visa Policy -- 5.3. Draft of an External Frontiers Convention -- 5.4. An Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice -- 5.5. Common Mechanisms for External Border Controls -- 6. Th e Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement -- 6.1. Negotiations -- 6.2. Content of the CISA -- 6.2.1. Title II: Abolition of Checks at Internal Borders and Movement of Persons -- 6.2.2. Visa Rules -- 6.2.3. Free Circulation -- 6.2.4. Priority of the Community Rules -- 6.3. Entry into Force and Players.

6.3.1. Entry into Force of the CISA -- 6.3.2. Position of the Nordic Countries -- 6.3.3. Position of UK and Ireland -- 6.3.4. New EU Member States -- 7. Treaty of Amsterdam: The Incorporation of the Schengen Acquis in EU Law -- 7.1. Title IV TEC: Communitisation of Asylum and Immigration Law -- 7.2. Incorporation of Schengen into EU Law: Marriage of Convenience or Repairing the Democratic Defi cit? -- 8. Schengen: Successful Laboratory for the EU? -- Chapter 3 The Schengen Information System -- 1. The Establishment of the SIS -- 1.1. Setting an Example: Th e Benelux Lists -- 1.2. Discussing the Purpose and Functioning of the SIS -- 1.3. Structure -- 1.4. Final Purpose and Categories of Entries -- 1.5. Problems During the Construction Phase -- 2. Legal Basis -- 3. Participants -- 3.1. Nordic Countries -- 3.2. The UK and Ireland -- 3.3. Switzerland -- 3.4. Accession of New EU Member States -- 4. SIS and Third-Country Nationals: Exclusion of 'inadmissible aliens' -- 4.1. Draft Texts -- 4.2. Article 96 CISA -- 4.3. Definition of 'inadmissible': Discretionary Power of National Governments -- 4.4. EU Citizens and Beneficiaries of EC Law -- 5. Practical Implementation of SIS: Statistical Data on the Number of Records and SIS-Based Hits -- 5.1. Numbers of Persons Entered in SIS -- 5.2. Numbers of Hits Based on Searches Performed of the SIS -- Chapter 4 New Functionalities for SIS and the Development of SIS II -- 1. The Road to the Second Generation SIS or SIS II -- 2. Early Proposals to Extend the Use of SIS -- 2.1. Access to Europol and Eurojust -- 2.2. Effective Protection against Illegal Immigration -- 2.3. New Categories of Persons -- 3. SIS I and the Fight Against Terrorism -- 3.1. Extending the Functions of the SIS I -- 3.2. Access for Internal Security and Intelligence Services -- 3.3. Inclusion of Persons Listed on the UN Terrorist Lists.

4. Adopted Decisions Extending the Use of SIS I -- 4.1. Regulation 871/2004 and Decision 2005/211 on New Functionalities -- 4.1.1. Europol and Eurojust -- 4.1.2. Public prosecutors -- 4.1.3. Authorities Responsible for Issuing or Examining Visa Applications or for Issuing Residence Permits -- 4.1.4. Duty to Report all Transmission of Data and a Legal Basis for SIRENE -- 4.2. Framework Decision 2002/584 on the European Arrest Warrant -- 4.3. Common Position 2005/69 on Exchange of SIS Data Between Member States and Interpol -- 4.4. Regulation 1160/2005 on Access to the SIS by Vehicle Registration Authorities -- 5. SIS II -- 5.1. Legal Basis for SIS II -- 5.2. Developing SIS II as a 'flexible tool' -- 5.3. The Position of the UK and Ireland with Regard to Access to SIS II -- 5.4. Involvement of the European Parliament -- 6. Final Texts of the Regulation and Decision on SIS II -- 6.1. Purpose -- 6.2. Criteria for Th ird-Country Nationals to be Stored in SIS II -- 6.2.1. Commission Proposal - Trying to Harmonise National Criteria -- 6.2.2. Final Criteria: Th e Individual Assessment and Proportionality Clause -- 6.2.3. SIS II and Terrorist Lists -- 6.3. EU Citizens and Privileged Third-Country Nationals -- 6.4. Inclusion of Biometrics in SIS II as an Identification Tool -- 6.5. Authorities Allowed Access to SIS II -- 6.6. Interlinking of Alerts -- 6.7. Change of Architecture -- 6.8. Establishment of the Management Authority -- 6.9. Evaluation and Publication of Statistics on SIS II -- 7. Comparing SIS I and SIS II -- 7.1. Changing the Purpose of SIS -- 7.2. Changes with Regard to the Storage and Use of Data on Third-Country Nationals -- Chapter 5 Other EU Databases Used in the Field of Immigration Control: Eurodac and VIS -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Eurodac -- 2.1. Development and Central Purpose of Eurodac.

2.2. Collection, Transmission and Comparison of Fingerprints -- 2.3. Extension to Illegal Immigrants -- 2.4. Functioning of Eurodac: Annual Reports of the Commission -- 3. Visa Information System or VIS -- 3.1. Negotiations Towards a European Visa Information System -- 3.2. The VIS Regulation: Purpose and Content of VIS -- 4. Interoperability of SIS II, Eurodac and VIS -- 5. Use of Biometric Data -- 5.1. Controlling the Body: Use of Biometrics at the EU Level -- 5.2. Different Options with Regard to the Use of Biometric Data -- 5.3. Biometrics and the Rights of Individuals -- 5.4. Reliability of Biometrics -- 5.5. Index on Criminal Records of Third-Country Nationals -- 6. Comparing SIS II, Eurodac and VIS -- 6.1. Central Databases, Immigrants and Biometrics -- 6.2. Differences Between SIS, Eurodac, and VIS -- 6.3. Intelligence Tool or Administrative File? -- Part II Eff ective Remedies under European Law -- Chapter 6 Data Processing and the Right to Privacy: Th e Importance of Article 8 ECHR -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Taking Article 8 ECHR into Account in EU Policy -- 2.1. SIS and SIS II -- 2.2. Eurodac -- 2.3. VIS -- 3. Article 8 ECHR and Data Processing: When is there an Interference with the Right to Private Life? -- 3.1. Secret Police and Security Files: Leander and Segerstedt-Wiberg -- 3.2. Child care Records, Health and Gender Information: Gaskin, Z and Goodwin -- 3.3. Systematic Collection and Storage of Personal Information by Public Authorities: Amann and Rotaru -- 3.4. Recording of Voices and Video Images Collected in the Public Domain: P.G. and J.H. v. UK -- 3.5. Administrative Data: Malone -- 3.6. Use of Information Beyond What is Normally Foreseeable: Perry, Peck and Lupker -- 3.7. Passports and Identification Measures: Smirnova and Iletmis -- 4. Is the Interference in Accordance with the Law? Quality of Law.

5. Necessary in a Democratic Society: Proportionality and Procedural Guarantees -- 6. Article 8 ECHR and the Need for Eff ective Remedies -- 6.1. Independent Control Mechanism: Judicial or Non-Judicial Remedies -- 6.2. Accessibility -- 6.3. Scope of the Remedies -- 6.4. Competences -- 6.4.1. Article 8 and Article 13 ECHR -- 6.4.2. Article 8 ECHR and the Right to Financial Compensation under Article 6 ECHR -- 6.5. Non-discrimination -- 7. Conclusions: EU Databases, Article 8 ECHR and Eff ective Remedies -- 7.1. Data Processing and the Right to Private Life -- 7.2. Procedural Guarantees and Effective Remedies -- Chapter 7 Effective Remedies under Data Protection Law -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Development of National Data Protection Law: Different Phases of Law-Making -- 3. Development of European Data Protection Law -- 3.1. 1981: Data Protection Convention of the Council of Europe -- 3.2. 1990: Inclusion of Data Protection Provisions in the CISA -- 3.3. 1995: Directive 95/46 on the Protection of Personal Data -- 3.3.1. Protecting Individuals and Free Movement of Data -- 3.3.2. Scope and Applicability of Directive 95/46 -- 3.4. Regulation 45/2001/EC: Data Protection Applicable to Community Institutions and Bodies -- 3.5. Data Protection in the Third Pillar: A New Instrument -- 3.6. Article 8 of the EU Charter: Data Protection as a Human Right -- 4. Unveiling Reasons for Data Protection -- 4.1. Protecting the Individual: The Right to Privacy -- 4.1.1. From the Right to be Let Alone to the Right of Personal Liberty -- 4.1.2. Informational Self-determination -- 4.2. Protecting the Rule of Law -- 4.2.1. Balance of Powers -- 4.2.2. Informational Division of Powers -- 4.3. Data Protection as an Obligation for 'good administration' -- 5. Data Protection Principles -- 5.1. The Principle of Purpose Limitation -- 5.1.1. Ban on "aimless data collection".

5.1.2. Legitimacy of Purpose.