Contents -- Foreword -- Dedication -- Message -- About the Editors -- List of Contributors -- Acknowledgments -- Section 1 Epidemiology and Risk Factors -- Chapter 1.1 Epidemiology of Myopia and Myopic Shift in Refraction Barbara E.K. Klein -- Introduction -- Methodologic Issues -- Review of Studies (Table 1) -- Cohort Effects on Myopia -- Risk Factors for Myopia -- Near work -- Education/Income -- Outdoor activity -- Age -- Race/Ethnicity -- Nuclear cataract -- Family aggregation/Genetics -- Siblings -- Parent-child -- Other family members -- Genetics -- Comments -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 1.2 Environmental Risk Factors for Myopia in Children Wilson C.J. Low, Tien-Yin Wong and Seang-Mei Saw -- Introduction -- Definition of Myopia in Epidemiologic Studies -- Risk Factors for Myopia and Ocular Biometry -- Family history of myopia -- Near work -- Outdoor activity -- Stature -- Birth parameters -- Smoking history -- Breastfeeding -- Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 1.3 Gene-Environment Interactions in the Aetiology of Myopia Ian G. Morgan and Kathryn A. Rose -- Introduction -- Aetiological Heterogeneity of Myopia -- Clearly genetic forms of myopia -- School or acquired myopia -- Misunderstandings of Heritability and Twin Studies -- But Heritability has Its Uses -- Evidence for Genetic Associations of School Myopia -- Evidence for the Impact of Environmental Factors on Myopia Phenotypes -- Gene-Environment Interactions and Ethnicity -- Gene-Environment Interactions and Parental Myopia -- Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 1.4 The Economics of Myopia Marcus C.C. Lim and Kevin D. Frick -- Introduction -- Economic evaluations -- Full vs partial evaluations -- Economic evaluation of myopia -- The Economic Cost of Myopia: A Burden-of-Disease Study -- i. Prevalence of myopia -- China -- India -- Europe -- Singapore.

Southeast Asia -- Africa -- USA -- South America -- Bangladesh -- ii. Proportion of myopes paying for correction -- Uncorrected and undercorrected refractive error, spectacle coverage rate and reasons for spectacles nonwear -- iii. Amount paid for myopic correction -- USA -- Singapore -- The burden of myopia -- Further Directions for Economic Research -- References -- Section 2 Clinical Studies and Pathologic Myopia -- Chapter 2.1 Quality of Life and Myopia Ecosse L. Lamoureux and Hwee-Bee Wong -- Introduction -- Impact of Myopia in Children, Adolescents and Young Adults -- Impact of Myopia in Adults -- Overall Conclusion -- Future Studies -- References -- Chapter 2.2 Ocular Morbidity of Pathological Myopia V. Swetha E. Jeganathan, Seang-Mei Saw and Tien-Yin Wong -- Introduction -- Definition of Pathological Myopia -- Cataract -- Glaucoma -- Myopic Maculopathy -- Myopic Retinopathy -- Retinal Detachment -- Optic Disc Abnormalities -- References -- Conclusion -- Chapter 2.3 Myopia and Glaucoma Shamira A. Perera and Tin Aung -- Introduction -- The Association Between Myopia and POAG -- Information from epidemiological studies -- Asian populations: Myopia and POAG -- Myopia in other situations -- Myopia and ocular hypertension -- Myopia in angle closure -- Myopia in Pigment Dispersion Syndrome (PDS) -- Limitations of cross-sectional studies: Methodologic issues -- Theories for a Link Between Myopia and POAG -- The association between myopia and glaucoma: How is it mediated? -- Glaucoma Assessment in Myopic Eyes -- Biometric differences -- Axial length and CCT -- Optic disc assessment in myopic eyes -- Visual fields in myopic eyes -- Imaging tests and variations with myopia -- ONH susceptibility to damage -- The Influence of Myopia on the Clinical Management of the Glaucoma Patient -- Glaucoma progression and myopia -- References.

Chapter 2.4 The Myopic Retina Shu-Yen Lee -- Posterior Staphyloma -- Myopic Chorioretinal Atrophy -- Lacquer Cracks -- Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization -- Myopic Foveoschisis -- Myopic macular hole detachments -- Lattice degeneration -- Retinal tears and detachments -- References -- Chapter 2.5 Retinal Function Chi D. Luu and Audrey W.L. Chia -- Introduction -- Electroretinography -- Ganzfeld electroretinography -- Multifocal electroretinography -- Assessment of Retinal Function -- Outer retinal (photoreceptor) function -- Post-receptoral (bipolar cell) and retinal transmission function -- Inner retinal function -- Macular function in myopic retina -- Effect of Long-Term Atropine Usage on Retinal Function -- Macular Function Associates with Myopia Progression -- Factors Associated with ERG Changes in Myopia -- Conclusion -- References -- Section 3 Genetics of Myopia -- Chapter 3.1 New Approaches in the Genetics of Myopia Liang K. Goh, Ravikanth Metlapally and Terri Young -- Introduction -- Genomic Convergence Using Genomic Content -- Pathway Analysis -- Pathway analysis in cancer genomics -- Pathway analysis in GWAS -- Non-parametric approaches -- Parametric approaches -- P-values combining approaches -- Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3.2 Twins Studies and Myopia Maria Schäche and Paul N. Baird -- Introduction -- Definition of Myopia -- The Classical Twin Model -- What is the classical twin model? -- Historical perspective -- Statistical approaches -- Twins, Myopia and Heritability Studies -- Heritability studies for myopia using twins -- Limitations of using twins in heritability studies -- Twins and Myopia - Other Studies -- The Importance of Twin Registries -- Concluding Comments -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 3.3 TIGR, TGFB1, cMET, HGF, Collagen Genes, and Myopia Chiea-Chuen Khor -- Introduction.

Candidate Gene Selection Strategies for Myopia -- Genes Associated With Myopia-Related Phenotypes -- The HGF/cMET ligand-receptor axis -- Transforming growth factor- β(TGFB1) -- Trabecular-meshwork inducible glucocorticoid response (TIGR) gene -- The collagen family of genes -- Concluding Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 3.4 Statistical Analysis of Genome-wide Association Studies for Myopia Yi-Ju Li and Qiao Fan -- Introduction -- Phenotypes for Myopia Genetic Studies -- Study Design -- Genotyping and Quality Controls -- Population Structure -- Association Tests -- Correlated Phenotypes -- Imputation and Meta-Analysis -- Visualization Tools -- Drawing Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Section 4 Animal Models and the Biological Basis of Myopia -- Chapter 4.1 The Relevance of Studies in Chicks for Understanding Myopia in Humans Josh Wallman and Debora L. Nickla -- Introduction -- The Search for Error Signals -- The blur hypothesis -- Bidirectional lens-compensation -- Recovery from ametropia vs. compensation for lenses -- The complication of the emmetropization end-point -- Optical aberrations as error signals -- Other possible visual error signals -- How Important is Having a Fovea? -- Mechanisms of Emmetropization -- Scleral similarities and differences between humans and chickens -- Retinal signals -- Glucagon-insulin -- Retinoic acid -- Dopamine -- Acetylcholine -- Choroidal signals -- The Role of the Choroid in the Control of Ocular Growth -- Diurnal rhythms and control of ocular growth -- Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4.2 The Mechanisms Regulating Scleral Change in Myopia Neville A. McBrien -- Introduction -- Gross Scleral Anatomy -- Structural organization of the sclera -- Cellular content of the sclera -- Mechanical properties of the sclera -- Structural Changes to the Sclera in Myopia.

Development of structural and ultrastructural scleral changes in myopia -- Scleral pathology and staphyloma -- Biochemical Changes in the Sclera of Myopic Eyes -- Structural biochemistry of the sclera in myopia -- Degradative processes in the sclera of myopic eyes -- Cellular changes in the sclera in myopia -- Biomechanical Changes in the Sclera of Myopic Eyes -- Regulators of scleral myofibroblast differentiation -- Myofibroblast-extracellular matrix interactions -- Cellular and matrix contributions to altered scleral biomechanics and myopia -- Scleral Changes in Myopia are Reversible -- Eye growth regulation during recovery from induced myopia -- Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 4.3 The Mouse Model of Myopia Frank Schaeffel -- Introduction -- Spatial Visual Performance and Optical Features of the Eye -- Axial eye growth and development of refractive state -- Lens thickness and vitreous chamber depth -- Corneal radius of curvature -- Schematic eye data -- Techniques Currently Available for Myopia Studies in the Mouse, Both for Its Induction and Measurement -- Devices to induce refractive errors -- Techniques to measure the induced refractive errors and changes in eye growth -- Refractive state -- Corneal radius of curvature -- Axial length measurements and ocular biometry -- Measurements of the optical aberrations of the mouse eye -- Behavioral measurement of grating acuity and contrast sensitivity in the mouse -- Recent Studies on Myopia in the Mouse Model: Some Examples -- Magnitudes of experimentally induced refractive errors in wild-type mice -- Refractive development in mutant mice -- Pharmacological studies to inhibit axial eye growth in mice -- Image processing and regulation of retinal genes and proteins -- Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References.

Chapter 4.4 Gene Analysis in Experimental Animal Models of Myopia Roger W. Beuerman, Liang K. Goh and Veluchamy A. Barathi.