Contents -- Preface -- List of Abbreviations -- Part One Introduction -- Chapter One International Crimes and other Gross Human Rights Violations around the world -- 1. Introduction -- 2. International Human Rights Law -- 2.1 The first human rights documents -- 2.2 The United Nations -- 2.3 The International Bill of Human Rights and beyond -- 2.4 Other treaty bodies and monitoring mechanisms -- 2.5 The role of the Security Council -- 2.6 Other international organizations -- 3. International Criminal and Humanitarian Law -- 3.1 The Battle of Solferino and the birth of international humanitarian law -- 3.2 International criminal law -- 3.3 Conclusion -- 4. International Crimes and other GHRV as Manifestations of Political Violence -- 4.1 State crime, governmental violence and state terrorism: definitional issues -- 4.2 Armed conflict -- 4.3 Conclusion -- 5. Measuring the Incidence and Prevalence of International Crimes and Other GHRV -- 5.1 Encountered difficulties when measuring international crimes and GHRV -- 5.2 Governmental and nongovernmental informational sources -- 5.3 Compiling databases and terror scales -- 5.4 Towards a new era of gathering human rights data -- 6. Conclusion -- Part Two International Crimes -- Chapter Two War Crimes -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Definition -- 3. A Short History of War Crimes as a Legal Concept -- 3.1 Grave Breaches of the Geneva Conventions -- 3.2 Common article 3 of the Geneva Conventions -- 3.3 Prosecuting perpetrators -- 3.4 The ICTY, ICTR and ICC provisions -- 3.5 The difference between war crimes and crimes against humanity -- 3.6 Conclusion -- 4. The Social Context of War -- 4.1 Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori -- 4.2 War and the myth of maleness -- 4.3 The horrors of war -- 4.4 The niceties of war -- 4.5 The after-effects of war -- 4.6 Conclusion -- 5. War Crimes: Types and Case Studies.

5.1 Irregular warfare, excessive violence and other atrocities -- 5.2 Rape and other forms of sexual violence -- 5.3 Massacres -- 5.4 A unit turns berserk -- 6. Conclusion -- Chapter Three Crimes against Humanity -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Definition -- 3. A Short History of the Development of the Concept of Crimes against Humanity -- 3.1 Difference between war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide -- 4. Social Context of Crimes against Humanity -- 4.1 Why and when states use force: the political context -- 4.2 Why and when states use force: the ideological context -- 4.3 Why and when states use force: the institutional context -- 4.4 Conclusion -- 5. Crimes against Humanity: Case Studies -- 5.1 Argentina's Dirty War -- 5.2 The South African Apartheid state (1948-1990/1994) -- 6. Conclusion -- Chapter Four Torture -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Definition -- 3. A Short History of the Legal Prohibition of Torture -- 3.1 Torture as a legitimate tool -- 3.2 Torture within human right law -- 3.3 Torture as an international crime -- 4. The Social Context of Torture -- 4.1 Torture: forms and effects -- 4.2 The functions of torture -- 4.3 Institutionalized torture -- 5. Torture in Democratic States: Two Case Studies -- 5.1 Israel and the Shin Beth affair -- 5.2 The United States and the War on Terror -- 6. Conclusion -- Chapter Five Genocide -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Definition -- 3. A Short History of the Development of the Concept of Genocide -- 3.1 The prohibition of genocide: an absolute moral postulate -- 3.2 Legal and political consequences -- 3.3 Sociological definitions of genocide -- 3.4 Related concepts -- 3.5 Conclusion -- 4. The Social Context of Genocide -- 4.1 Functions and types of genocide -- 4.2 Genocide prone situations and the roots of evil -- 4.3 The means of genocide -- 5. Case Studies -- 5.1 Nazi Germany -- 5.2 The Rwandan genocide.

6. Conclusion -- Part Three The Perpetrators -- Chapter Six Human Nature and Social-Psychological Insights -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Aggression and Sadism -- 2.1 Aggression - a natural instinct or learned behaviour? -- 2.2 Moral disengagement -- 2.3 De-individuation -- 2.4 The myth of pure evil -- 2.5 Conclusion -- 3. Obedience to Authority -- 3.1 The Milgram experiment -- 3.2 Replications of the Milgram experiment -- 3.3 Measuring personal dispositions -- 3.4 Significance of the Milgram experiments -- 3.5 Conclusion -- 4. Situational Factors -- 4.1 The Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo) -- 4.2 The aftermath -- 5. Conclusion -- Chapter Seven Conformism, Group Behaviour and Collective Identities -- 1. Introduction -- 2. The Effect of Others and Especially Groups on Human Behaviour -- 2.1 The experiments of Asch: measuring compliance -- 2.2 The social identity theory and the danger of polarization -- 2.3 Constructing social reality and the role of attribution errors -- 2.4 Cognitive dissonance, foot-in-the-door technique and escalating commitments -- 2.5 Group dynamics, social learning and extreme behaviour in groups -- 2.6 Conclusion -- 3. Mass Movements -- 3.1 The Wave -- 3.2 The followers -- 3.3 The need for an enemy -- 3.4 The role of the leader and the use of symbolism -- 4. Conclusion -- Chapter Eight Training and Education of Perpetrators -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Military Organizations and their Environment -- 2.1 Features and characteristics -- 2.2 Initiation -- 2.3 Selection procedures and training methods -- 2.4 Trained to kill -- 3. The Greek Torture School -- 3.1 Selection and basic training -- 3.2 Trained to become a torturer -- 3.3 Conclusion -- Chapter Nine Ordinary People in Extra-Ordinary Circumstances -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Who are the Perpetrators? -- 2.1 Perpetrators in Nazi Germany -- 2.2 Other perpetrators -- 2.3 Conclusion.

3. Transformation Process -- 3.1 Initiation and first kill -- 3.2 Neutralization techniques and other defence mechanisms -- 3.3 Doubling -- 3.4 The urge to cope -- 3.5 Looking back -- 3.6 Conclusion -- 4. Typology of Perpetrators -- 4.1 Criminal mastermind -- 4.2 The profiteers and careerists -- 4.3 Devoted warriors and professionals -- 4.4 Fanatics, sadists and criminals -- 4.5 The followers and conformists -- 4.6 The compromised -- 4.7 Conclusion -- 5. A Question of Gender? -- 6. Conclusion -- Part Four Bystanders -- Chapter Ten Bystanders -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Definition -- 2.1 Stages of atrocities and the role of the bystander -- 3. Ignorance -- 4. Levels of Analysis -- 5. Time Periods -- 6. Collaborators and Rescuers in Combined Triangles -- 6.1 Bystander roles of Sweden and Denmark in the triangles as both collaborators and rescuers -- 6.2 Visions of perpetrators towards bystanders -- 7. No Single Bystander Role -- 8. Responsibility -- 9. Conclusion -- Chapter Eleven Prevention by Bystanders -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Prevention of Genocide -- 3. Opportunities to Prevent -- 4. Responsibility to Protect -- 5. Early Warning as a Concept -- 6. Signals for Early Warning -- 7. Preventive Action -- 8. Peace-keeping Forces -- 8.1 Generations of peace-keepers -- 8.2 Consent -- 8.3 Use of force -- 8.4 Impartiality -- 8.5 Strength, mandate, composition and rules of engagement -- 8.6 Regional peace-keeping forces -- 9. Conclusion -- Chapter Twelve Case Studies: Failure to Prevent Genocide in Rwanda (1994), Srebrenica (1995) and Darfur (since 2003) -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Rwanda -- 2.1 Warnings -- 2.2 Instruments: UNAMIR -- 2.3 Decision-making -- 3. Srebrenica -- 3.1 Warnings -- 3.2 Instruments: DUTCHBAT -- 3.3 Decision-making -- 4. Darfur -- 4.1 Warnings -- 4.2 Instruments: UNAMID/EUFOR -- 4.3 Decision-making -- 5. Failures to Prevent Genocide.

6. Conclusion -- Chapter Thirteen Intervention by Bystanders -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Enforcement Measures by the UN -- 3. Security Council Decision-Making -- 4. Economic Sanctions -- 5. Effectiveness of Sanctions -- 6. Smart Sanctions -- 7. The Use of Force in Military Actions -- 8. Humanitarian Intervention -- 8.1 Responsibility to Protect (R2P) -- 8.2 UN-authorized intervention -- 8.3 UN Unauthorized intervention -- 9. Conclusion -- Part Five Dealing with the Past -- Chapter Fourteen Post-Conflict Justice -- 1. Introduction -- 2. The Importance of Dealing with the Past -- 2.1 Truth -- 2.2 Accountability -- 2.3 Reconciliation -- 2.4 Reparation -- 2.5 Conclusion -- 3. Dealing with the Past? -- 3.1 Do nothing: general pardons and unconditional amnesties -- 3.2 Retributive justice -- 3.3 Restorative justice -- 3.4 Other ways of dealing with the past -- 4. How to Choose the Best Option? -- 5. Conclusion -- Bibliography -- Biographic Note -- Index.