Electrochemical Technologies for Energy Storage and Conversion -- Contents to Volume 1 -- Contents to Volume 2 -- Preface -- About the Editors -- List of Contributors -- 1 Electrochemical Technologies for Energy Storage and Conversion -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Global Energy Status: Demands, Challenges, and Future Perspectives -- 1.3 Driving Forces behind Clean and Sustainable Energy Sources -- 1.3.1 Local Governmental Policies as a Potential Thrust -- 1.3.2 Greenhouse Gases Emission and the Associated Climate Changes -- 1.3.3 Public Awareness about Environmental Protection Rose around the World -- 1.3.4 Population Growth and Industrialization -- 1.3.5 Security and Safety Concerns Arising from Scarcity of Resources -- 1.3.6 Platforms Advocating in Favor of Sustainable and Renewable Resources -- 1.3.7 Economic Risk Generated from Price Pressure of Natural Resources -- 1.3.8 Regulatory Risk from Governmental Action and Legislation -- 1.3.9 Fear of Reputational Risk to Strengthen Corporate Social Responsibility -- 1.3.10 Operational and Supply Chain Risks from Inefficiencies and Environmental Changes -- 1.4 Green and Sustainable Energy Sources and Their Conversion: Hydro, Biomass, Wind, Solar, Geothermal, and Biofuel -- 1.4.1 Solar PV Plants -- 1.4.2 Wind Power -- 1.4.3 Geothermal Power -- 1.4.4 Concentrating Solar Thermal Power (CSP) Plants -- 1.4.5 Biomass -- 1.4.6 Biofuel -- 1.5 Electrochemistry: a Technological Overview -- 1.6 Electrochemical Rechargeable Batteries and Supercapacitors (Li Ion Batteries, Lead-Acid Batteries, NiMH Batteries, Zinc-Air Batteries, Liquid Redox Batteries) -- 1.6.1 Lead-Acid Batteries -- 1.6.2 NiMH Batteries -- 1.6.3 Li-Ion Batteries -- 1.6.4 Zinc-Air Batteries -- 1.6.5 Liquid Redox Batteries.

1.7 Light Fuel Generation and Storage: Water Electrolysis, Chloro-Alkaline Electrolysis, Photoelectrochemical and Photocatalytic H2 Generation, and Electroreduction of CO2 -- 1.7.1 Water Electrolysis -- 1.7.2 Electrochemistry of Water Splitting -- 1.7.3 Chlor-Alkaline Electrolysis -- 1.7.4 Photoelectrochemical and Photocatalytic H2 Generation -- 1.7.5 Carbon Dioxide Reduction -- 1.8 Fuel Cells: Fundamentals to Systems (Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells, PEM Fuel Cells, Direct Methanol Fuel Cells, Molten Carbon Fuel Cells, and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells) -- 1.8.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells -- 1.8.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells -- 1.8.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) -- 1.8.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells -- 1.8.5 High-Temperature Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells -- 1.8.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells -- 1.9 Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Further Reading -- 2 Electrochemical Engineering Fundamentals -- 2.1 Electrical Current/Voltage, Faraday's Laws, Electric Efficiency, and Mass Balance -- 2.1.1 Current Efficiency -- 2.1.2 Mass Balance -- 2.2 Electrode Potentials and Electrode-Electrolyte Interfaces -- 2.2.1 Potential Difference -- 2.2.2 Electrode-Electrolyte Interfaces -- 2.3 Electrode Kinetics (Charger Transfer (Butler-Volmer Equation) and Mass Transfer (Diffusion Laws)) -- 2.3.1 Limitations of Butler-Volmer Equation -- 2.4 Porous Electrode Theory (Kinetic and Diffusion) -- 2.4.1 Theories of Porous Electrode -- 2.4.1.1 The Single-Pore Model -- 2.4.1.2 The Macrohomogeneous Model -- 2.5 Structure, Design, and Fabrication of Electrochemical Devices -- 2.5.1 Major Types of Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells -- 2.5.2 Designing Electrochemical Devices -- 2.5.3 Some Structural Aspects of Electrochemical Devices -- 2.5.4 Fabrication Principles of Fuel Cells -- 2.5.5 Fabrication Principles of Batteries -- 2.5.6 Fabrication Principles of Supercapacitors.

2.6 Nanomaterials in Electrochemical Applications -- 2.6.1 Carbon Nanostructures -- 2.6.2 Inorganic Nanostructures -- 2.6.3 Carbon-Inorganic Nanocomposites -- 2.6.4 Conducting Polymer Nanostructures -- 2.6.5 Application of Nanomaterials Lead to Emerging Devices -- References -- 3 Lithium Ion Rechargeable Batteries -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Main Types and Structures of Li Ion Rechargeable Batteries -- 3.2.1 Structure of Wound Li Ion Cells -- 3.2.2 Structure of Flat-Plate Prismatic Li-Ion Batteries -- 3.3 Electrochemical Processes in Li Ion Rechargeable Batteries -- 3.4 Battery Components (Anode, Cathode, Separator, Endplates, and Current Collector) -- 3.4.1 Anode -- 3.4.1.1 Carbon Anode Materials -- 3.4.1.2 Noncarbonaceous Anode Materials -- 3.4.2 Cathode -- 3.4.2.1 LiCoO2 -- 3.4.2.2 LiNiO2 -- 3.4.2.3 LiMnO2 -- 3.4.2.4 LiFePO4 -- 3.4.3 Separator -- 3.4.4 Current Collector -- 3.5 Assembly, Stacking, and Manufacturing of Li Ion Rechargeable Batteries -- 3.5.1 Electrode Manufacturing -- 3.5.1.1 Cathode Materials -- 3.5.1.2 Anode Materials -- 3.5.1.3 Mixing -- 3.5.1.4 Coating -- 3.5.1.5 Drying -- 3.5.2 Assembling Process -- 3.5.2.1 Core Construction -- 3.5.2.2 Welding -- 3.5.2.3 Injecting -- 3.5.2.4 Sealing -- 3.5.3 Formation and Aging -- 3.6 Li Ion Battery Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis -- 3.6.1 Characteristics of Energy -- 3.6.1.1 Specific Energy of Cathode Materials -- 3.6.1.2 Specific Energy of Anode Materials -- 3.6.2 Working Characteristics -- 3.6.2.1 Discharge Rate Capability -- 3.6.2.2 Cycle Life -- 3.6.2.3 Storage Performance -- 3.6.2.4 Temperature Effects on Performance -- 3.6.3 Test and Evaluation of Li Battery Materials -- 3.7 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies -- 3.7.1 Degradation Mechanisms -- 3.7.1.1 The Effect of Anode Materials -- 3.7.1.2 The Effect of Cathode Materials -- 3.7.1.3 The Effect of Electrolyte.

3.7.1.4 The Effect of Charging and Discharging States -- 3.7.1.5 The Effect of Current Collector -- 3.7.2 Mitigation Strategies -- 3.7.2.1 The Surface Treatment -- 3.7.2.2 Replacement of LiPF6 by Salts and the Use of Additives -- 3.7.2.3 Developing a New System of Electrolyte -- 3.8 Current and Potential Applications of Secondary Li Ion Batteries -- 3.8.1 Portable Electronic Devices -- 3.8.2 Applications of Lithium Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicle (EV) Industry -- 3.8.3 Application Prospect of Lithium Ion Battery in the Aerospace Industry -- 3.8.4 As Energy Reserves -- 3.8.5 Application of Military Equipment -- References -- 4 Lead-Acid Battery -- 4.1 General Characteristics and Chemical/Electrochemical Processes in a Lead-Acid Battery -- 4.1.1 General Characteristics -- 4.1.2 Major Milestones in the Development of the Lead-Acid Battery -- 4.1.2.1 Chemistry/Electrochemistry -- 4.2 Battery Components (Anode, Cathode, Separator, Endplates (Current Collector), and Sealing) -- 4.2.1 Battery Grid (Current Collector) -- 4.2.2 Active Material -- 4.2.2.1 Lead Oxide -- 4.2.2.2 Positive Active Material (Cathode Paste) -- 4.2.2.3 Negative Active Material (Anode Paste) -- 4.2.3 Electrolyte -- 4.2.4 Paste Production -- 4.2.5 Pasting -- 4.2.6 Curing -- 4.2.7 Formation -- 4.2.7.1 Tank Formation -- 4.2.7.2 Case Formation -- 4.2.8 Separator -- 4.2.9 Assembly -- 4.2.10 Case to Cover Seal -- 4.3 Main Types and Structures of Lead-Acid Batteries -- 4.3.1 SLI Batteries -- 4.3.2 Deep Cycle and Traction Batteries -- 4.3.3 Stationary Battery -- 4.3.4 VRLA Battery -- 4.4 Charging Lead-Acid Battery -- 4.5 Maintenance and Failure Mode of a Lead-Acid Battery -- 4.5.1 Maintenance -- 4.5.2 Safety -- 4.5.3 Failure Mode of Lead-Acid Battery -- 4.6 Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Technology -- 4.6.1 Negative Current Collector Improvement -- 4.6.1.1 Ultrabattery.

4.6.1.2 PbC Capacitor Battery -- 4.6.1.3 Firefly Oasis Battery -- 4.6.2 Current Collector Improvement -- 4.6.2.1 Lead-Alloy-Coated, Reticulated Carbon Current Collectors -- 4.6.2.2 Lead-Alloy-Coated Polymer Current Collectors -- 4.6.3 Battery Construction -- 4.6.3.1 Horizon Battery -- 4.6.3.2 Bipolar Battery -- 4.6.4 Electrolyte Improvement -- 4.6.4.1 Gel Silicon Electrolyte -- 4.6.4.2 Liquid Low Sodium Silicate Electrolyte -- 4.7 Lead-Acid Battery Market -- 4.7.1 Automotive (Transportation and Recreation, Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) and Replacement) -- 4.7.1.1 SLI Battery (Starting, Lighting, and Ignition) -- 4.7.1.2 Deep Cycle Battery (E-Bike/Marine/Recreational Vehicle/Motor Home) -- 4.7.1.3 Microhybrid -- 4.7.2 Industrial -- 4.7.2.1 Motive (Industrial Trucks, Fork Lifts, Golf Carts, etc.) -- 4.7.2.2 Stationary (Utility/Switchgear, Telecommunication, Uninterruptible Power Systems (UPS), Emergency Lighting, Security Systems, Renewable Energy Systems, Cable Television/Broadcasting, Oil and Gas Exploration, Railway Backup, etc.) -- 4.7.2.3 Emerging Grid Applications -- 4.7.2.4 Distributed Renewable -- References -- Further Reading -- 5 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Rechargeable Batteries -- 5.1 Introduction to NiMH Rechargeable Batteries -- 5.2 Electrochemical Processes in Rechargeable Ni-MH Batteries -- 5.3 Battery Components -- 5.3.1 Anode -- 5.3.1.1 Properties of Hydrogen Storage Alloys -- 5.3.1.2 The Classification of Hydrogen Storage Alloys -- 5.3.1.3 Alloy Preparation -- 5.3.2 Cathode -- 5.3.2.1 Preparation of Ni(OH)2 -- 5.3.3 Separator -- 5.3.3.1 Preparation of Separators -- 5.3.4 Electrolyte -- 5.3.5 Endplates -- 5.3.5.1 Conductive Agent -- 5.3.5.2 Adhesives -- 5.3.6 Cost Distributions for the Components of Ni-MH Batteries -- 5.4 Assembly, Stacking, Configuration, and Manufacturing of Rechargeable Ni-MH Batteries.

5.4.1 Electrode Preparation.