Space Antenna HANDBOOK -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Acronyms -- Contributors -- 1 Antenna Basics -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Antenna Performance Parameters -- 1.2.1 Reflection Coefficient and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio -- 1.2.2 Antenna Impedance -- 1.2.3 Radiation Pattern and Coverage -- 1.2.4 Polarization -- 1.2.5 Directivity -- 1.2.6 Gain and Realized Gain -- 1.2.7 Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power -- 1.2.8 Effective Area -- 1.2.9 Phase Center -- 1.2.10 Bandwidth -- 1.2.11 Antenna Noise Temperature -- 1.3 Basic Antenna Elements -- 1.3.1 Wire Antennas -- 1.3.2 Horn Antennas -- 1.3.3 Reflectors -- 1.3.4 Helical Antennas -- 1.3.5 Printed Antennas -- 1.4 Arrays -- 1.4.1 Array Configurations -- 1.5 Basic Effects of Antennas in the Space Environment -- 1.5.1 Multipaction -- 1.5.2 Passive Inter-modulation -- 1.5.3 Outgassing -- References -- 2 Space Antenna Modeling -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Maxwell's Equations -- 2.1.2 CEM -- 2.2 Methods of Antenna Modeling -- 2.2.1 Basic Theory -- 2.2.2 Method of Moments -- 2.2.3 FEM -- 2.2.4 FDTD Method -- 2.3 Fast Algorithms for Large Space Antenna Modeling -- 2.3.1 Introduction -- 2.3.2 MLFMA -- 2.3.3 Hierarchical Basis for the FEM -- 2.4 Case Studies: Effects of the Satellite Body on the Radiation Patterns of Antennas -- 2.5 Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 3 System Architectures of Satellite Communication, Radar, Navigation and Remote Sensing -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Elements of Satellite System Architecture -- 3.3 Satellite Missions -- 3.4 Communications Satellites -- 3.4.1 Fixed Satellite Services -- 3.4.2 Broadcast Satellite Services (Direct Broadcast Services) -- 3.4.3 Digital Audio Radio Services -- 3.4.4 Direct to Home Broadband Services -- 3.4.5 Mobile Communications Services -- 3.5 Radar Satellites -- 3.6 Navigational Satellites -- 3.7 Remote Sensing Satellites.

3.8 Architecture of Satellite Command and Control -- 3.9 The Communications Payload Transponder -- 3.9.1 Bent-Pipe Transponders -- 3.9.2 Digital Transponders -- 3.9.3 Regenerative Repeater -- 3.10 Satellite Functional Requirements -- 3.10.1 Key Performance Concepts: Coverage, Frequency Allocations -- 3.10.2 Architecture of the Communications Payload -- 3.10.3 Satellite Communications System Performance Requirements -- 3.11 The Satellite Link Equation -- 3.12 The Microwave Transmitter Block -- 3.12.1 Intercept Point -- 3.12.2 Output Backoff -- 3.12.3 The Transmit Antenna and EIRP -- 3.13 Rx Front-End Block -- 3.13.1 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature -- 3.14 Received Power in the Communications System's RF Link -- 3.14.1 The Angular Dependencies of the Uplink and Downlink -- 3.15 Additional Losses in the Satellite and Antenna -- 3.15.1 Additional Losses due to Propagation Effects and the Atmosphere -- 3.15.2 Ionospheric Effects - Scintillation and Polarization Rotation -- 3.16 Thermal Noise and the Antenna Noise Temperature -- 3.16.1 The Interface between the Antenna and the Communications System -- 3.16.2 The Uplink Signal to Noise -- 3.17 The SNR Equation and Minimum Detectable Signal -- 3.18 Power Flux Density, Saturation Flux Density and Dynamic Range -- 3.18.1 Important Relationship between PFD and Gain State of the Satellite Transponder -- 3.19 Full-Duplex Operation and Passive Intermodulation -- 3.20 Gain and Gain Variation -- 3.21 Pointing Error -- 3.22 Remaining Elements of Satellite System Architecture -- 3.23 Orbits and Orbital Considerations -- 3.24 Spacecraft Introduction -- 3.25 Spacecraft Budgets (Mass, Power, Thermal) -- 3.25.1 Satellite Mass -- 3.25.2 Satellite Power -- 3.25.3 Satellite Thermal Dissipation -- 3.26 Orbital Mission Life and Launch Vehicle Considerations -- 3.27 Environment Management (Thermal, Radiation).

3.28 Spacecraft Structure (Acoustic/Dynamic) -- 3.29 Satellite Positioning (Station Keeping) -- 3.30 Satellite Positioning (Attitude Control) -- 3.31 Power Subsystem -- 3.32 Tracking, Telemetry, Command and Monitoring -- References -- 4 Space Environment and Materials -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 The Space Environment of Antennas -- 4.2.1 The Radiation Environment -- 4.2.2 The Plasma Environment -- 4.2.3 The Neutral Environment -- 4.2.4 Space Environment for Typical Spacecraft Orbits -- 4.2.5 Thermal Environment -- 4.2.6 Launch Environment -- 4.3 Selection of Materials in Relation to Their Electromagnetic Properties -- 4.3.1 RF Transparent Materials and Their Use -- 4.3.2 RF Conducting Materials and Their Use -- 4.3.3 Material Selection Golden Rules for PIM Control -- 4.4 Space Materials and Manufacturing Processes -- 4.4.1 Metals and Their Alloys -- 4.4.2 Polymer Matrix Composites -- 4.4.3 Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix Composites -- 4.5 Characterization of Mechanical and Thermal Behaviour -- 4.5.1 Thermal Vacuum Environment and Outgassing Screening -- 4.5.2 Fundamental Characterization Tests of Polymers and Composites -- 4.5.3 Characterization of Mechanical Properties -- 4.5.4 Thermal and Thermoelastic Characterization -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 5 Mechanical and Thermal Design of Space Antennas -- 5.1 Introduction: The Mechanical-Thermal-Electrical Triangle -- 5.1.1 Antenna Product -- 5.1.2 Configuration, Materials and Processes -- 5.1.3 Review of Requirements and Their Verification -- 5.2 Design of Antenna Structures -- 5.2.1 Typical Design Solutions for Reflectors -- 5.2.2 Structural Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture -- 5.2.3 Thermal Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture -- 5.2.4 Electrical Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture in Relation to Thermo-mechanical Design -- 5.3 Structural Modelling and Analysis.

5.3.1 First-Order Plate Theory -- 5.3.2 Higher Order Plate Theories -- 5.3.3 Classical Laminated Plate Theory -- 5.3.4 Homogeneous Isotropic Plate Versus Symmetric Sandwich Plate -- 5.3.5 Skins Made of Composite Material -- 5.3.6 Honeycomb Core Characteristics -- 5.3.7 Failure Modes of Sandwich Plates -- 5.3.8 Mass Optimization of Sandwich Plate Architecture for Antennas -- 5.3.9 Finite Element Analysis -- 5.3.10 Acoustic Loads on Antennas -- 5.4 Thermal and Thermoelastic Analysis -- 5.4.1 The Thermal Environment of Space Antennas -- 5.4.2 Transverse Thermal Conductance Model of the Sandwich Plate -- 5.4.3 Thermal Balance of the Flat Sandwich Plate -- 5.4.4 Thermal Distortions of a Flat Plate in Space -- 5.4.5 Thermoelastic Stability of an Offset Parabolic Reflector -- 5.4.6 Thermal Analysis Tools -- 5.4.7 Thermal Analysis Cases -- 5.4.8 Thermal Model Uncertainty and Margins -- 5.5 Thermal Control Strategies -- 5.5.1 Requirements and Principal Design Choices -- 5.5.2 Thermal Control Components -- 5.5.3 Thermal Design Examples -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 6 Testing of Antennas for Space -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Testing as a Development and Verification Tool -- 6.2.1 Engineering for Test -- 6.2.2 Model Philosophy and Definitions -- 6.2.3 Electrical Model Correlation -- 6.2.4 Thermal Testing and Model Correlation -- 6.3 Antenna Testing Facilities -- 6.3.1 Far-Field Antenna Test Ranges -- 6.3.2 Compact Antenna Test Ranges -- 6.3.3 Near-Field Measurements and Facilities -- 6.3.4 Environmental Test Facilities and Mechanical Testing -- 6.3.5 PIM Testing -- 6.4 Case Study: SMOS -- 6.4.1 The SMOS MIRAS Instrument -- 6.4.2 SMOS Model Philosophy -- 6.4.3 Antenna Pattern Test Campaign -- References -- 7 Historical Overview of the Development of Space Antennas -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The Early Days.

7.2.1 Wire and Slot Antennas on Simple Satellite Bodies -- 7.2.2 Antenna Computer Modelling Takes Off -- 7.2.3 Existing/Classical Antenna Designs Adapted for Space -- 7.3 Larger Reflectors with Complex Feeding Systems -- 7.3.1 Introduction -- 7.3.2 Multi-frequency Antennas -- 7.3.3 Large Unfurlable Antennas -- 7.3.4 Solid Surface Deployable Reflector Antennas -- 7.3.5 Polarization-Sensitive and Shaped Reflectors -- 7.3.6 Multi-feed Antennas -- 7.4 Array Antennas -- 7.4.1 Conformal Arrays on Spin-Stabilized Satellites -- 7.4.2 Arrays for Remote Sensing -- 7.4.3 Arrays for Telecommunications -- 7.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 8 Deployable Mesh Reflector Antennas for Space Applications: RF Characterizations -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 History of Deployable Mesh Reflectors -- 8.3 Design Considerations Specific to Mesh Reflectors -- 8.4 The SMAP Mission - A Representative Case Study -- 8.4.1 Mission Overview -- 8.4.2 Key Antenna Design Drivers and Constraints -- 8.4.3 RF Performance Determination of Reflector Surface Materials -- 8.4.4 RF Modeling of the Antenna Radiation Pattern -- 8.4.5 Feed Assembly Design -- 8.4.6 Performance Verification -- 8.5 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 9 Microstrip Array Technologies for Space Applications -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Basics of Array Antennas -- 9.2.1 Functional (Driving) Requirements and Array Design Solutions -- 9.2.2 Materials for Passive Arrays Versus Environmental and Design Requirements -- 9.2.3 Array Optimization Methods and Criteria -- 9.3 Passive Arrays -- 9.3.1 Radiating Panels for SAR Antennas -- 9.3.2 Navigation Antennas -- 9.3.3 Passive Antennas for Deep Space -- 9.4 Active Arrays -- 9.4.1 Key Active Elements in Active Antennas: Amplifiers -- 9.4.2 Active Hybrids -- 9.4.3 The Thermal Dissipation Design Solution -- 9.4.4 Active Array Control.

9.4.5 Active Arrays for Communications and Data Transmission.