Fragmented State Power and Forced Migration -- CONTENTS -- LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION -- 1.1. Setting the Scene -- 1.2. The Research Questions and Approaches -- 1.3. The Structure of the Book -- CHAPTER TWO: NORMATIVE FOUNDATIONS OF THE SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION IN EUROPE -- 2.1. Introductory Remarks -- 2.2. The Foundations of the System of Protectionof Forced Migrants: The Refugee Convention -- 2.2.1. Ambiguity and Interpretation of the Refugee Defijinition -- 2.2.1.1. On the Interpretation of Human Rights Treaties -- 2.2.1.2. On the Interpretation of the Refugee Convention -- 2.3. Extension of Protection Obligations: Non-refoulement, the European Convention on Human Rights and Immigration Control -- 2.3.1. The ECHR and Immigration Control -- 2.3.1.1. The ECHR and Expulsion -- 2.3.1.2. The ECHR and Detention for the Purposes of Immigration Control -- 2.3.1.3. The ECHR and Implicit Standards on Treatment of Immigrants: The Protection of Private and Family Life and Non-Refoulement -- 2.4. The Qualification Directive and the Evolving Regional Understanding of the Concepts of 'Refugee' and 'Subsidiary Protection' -- 2.4.1. A Brief Outline of the History of the CommonEuropean Asylum System -- 2.4.2. The Qualifijication Directive: Context, Purpose and Content -- 2.4.3. On the Interrelationship of the Qualifijication Directive, the Refugee Convention and the ECHR -- 2.5. Concluding Observations -- CHAPTER THREE: NON-STATE ACTORS AND THE REFUGEE DEFINITION -- 3.1. Introductory Remarks -- 3.2. On the Notion of Persecution -- 3.2.1. Persecution as 'Unendurability' -- 3.2.2. Human Rights Approaches to Persecution -- 3.2.2.1. Persecution as "Severe Violation of Basic Human Rights".

3.2.2.2. Persecution as "Sustained or Systematic Violation of Basic HumanRights Demonstrative of a Failure of State Protection" -- 3.2.2.3. Recognizing Gender-Specifijic Violence as a Human Rights Violation -- 3.2.2.4. Recognizing Gender-Specifijic Violence as Persecution -- 3.2.3. Human Rights as Descriptive Indicators in Constructing the Notion of Persecution -- 3.3. Lack of Protection as an Element of the Refugee Character -- 3.3.1. Accountability versus Protection -- 3.3.1.1. The Pre-Qualifijication Directive Period and the Divergence of Approaches -- 3.3.1.2. The Accountability Approach -- 3.3.1.3. Protection Approaches -- 3.3.1.3.1. Refugee Protection as Surrogate Protection -- 3.3.1.3.2. The Meaning of 'Protection' in the Refugee Defijinition -- 3.3.1.3.3. Refugee Protection as Protection Entailing Complementary and Surrogate Elements -- 3.3.1.4. Lack of Domestic Protection as an Element of Well-Founded Fear -- 3.4. The Nexus Requirement -- 3.4.1. The Nexus, Non-State Actors and Situations of Large-Scale Violence -- 3.4.2. The Nexus, Non-State Actors and 'Private Harm' -- 3.4.2.1. Which Convention Ground? -- 3.5. The Internal Protection Alternative -- 3.6. The Actors of Protection -- 3.7. Concluding Observations on the Refugee Definition -- CHAPTER FOUR: THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, PROHIBITION OF REFOULEMENT AND NON-STATE ACTORS -- 4.1. Introductory Remarks -- 4.2. The Extent of and Justification for Non-Refoulement under the ECHR -- 4.2.1. Justifijications for the Double Standards -- 4.3. Non-Refoulement in the Context of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention against Torture -- 4.3.1. The Implicit Prohibition of Refoulement under the ICCPR -- 4.3.2. The Explicit Prohibition of Refoulement under the CAT.

4.4. Non-Refoulement under Article 3 of the ECHR as an Absolute and Invariably Evolving Prohibition -- 4.4.1. Non-Refoulement as Autonomous and Absolute -- 4.4.2. Non-Refoulement as Efffective and Dynamic -- 4.4.3. On the Notions of Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment and Punishment -- 4.4.4. How Absolute is the Absolute: Serious Harm in the Context of Immigration Control -- 4.4.4.1. Minors and Immigration Control -- 4.4.4.2. The Individual's Conduct and Immigration Control -- 4.4.4.3. 'Medical Cases' and the Relativity of Protection -- 4.5. Triggering a Non-Refoulement Effect: Substantial Grounds for a Real Risk of Serious Harm -- 4.6. Non-State Actors and Non-Refoulement -- 4.6.1. An Overview of Non-State Actors and Non-Refoulement under the ECHR, the ICCPR and the CAT -- 4.6.2. The Recognition of Non-State Actors of Harm under the ECHR: Ahmed v. Austria and H.L.R. v. France -- 4.6.3. Non-State Actors of Harm in the Subsequent Practice of the European Court of Human Rights -- 4.6.4. Non-Refoulement and Indiscriminate Violence -- 4.7. Actors of Protection against Serious Harm -- 4.7.1. Salah Sheekh and Non-State Actors of Protection -- 4.8. The Internal Flight Alternative -- 4.9. Concluding Observations on Non-Refoulement under the ECHR -- CHAPTER FIVE: SUBSIDIARY PROTECTION AND NON-STATE ACTORS -- 5.1. Introductory Remarks -- 5.2. Refugee Protection, Subsidiary Protection, the Nexus Requirement, and Actors of Harm -- 5.3. On the Notion of Serious Harm -- 5.3.1. Serious Harm as Death Penalty or Execution -- 5.3.2. Serious Harm as Torture or Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in the Country of Origin -- 5.3.2.1. Serious Harm as Torture or Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and Non-Refoulement under the ECHR -- 5.3.2.2. Serious Harm as Torture or Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and Persecution.

5.3.3. Serious Harm as Serious and Individual Threat to a Civilian's Life or Person by Reason of Indiscriminate Violence in Situations of International or Internal Armed Conflict -- 5.3.3.1. Serious and Individual Threat to Life or Person by Reason of Indiscriminate Violence… -- 5.3.3.2. …in a Situation of International or Internal Armed Conflict -- 5.3.3.2.1. An International Humanitarian Law Reading of the Notion ofArmed Conflict -- 5.3.3.2.2. Alternative Readings of the Notion of Armed Conflict -- 5.4. Concluding Observations on Subsidiary Protection -- CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUDING REMARKS -- SOURCES -- INDEX.