Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Preface -- Summary Contents -- Contents -- Tables of Cases -- Tables of Legislation -- Abbreviations -- 1. Introduction -- 2. History of Human Rights -- I Human Rights and the Rise of the State in Europe -- II International Protection of Human Rights: A Latecomer in History -- III From the Sixteenth Century to 1776 -- Protection of Human Beings by Denial of Human Rights -- Protection of Human Beings by Recognition of Human Rights -- IV From 1776 to 1914 -- Human Rights in National Constitutional Texts -- Abolition of the Slave Trade -- Humanitarian Law -- No General Guarantees of Human Rights -- V Between the Two World Wars -- Mandate System of the League of Nations -- International Protection of Minorities -- Objectives of the International Labour Organization -- Legal Doctrine -- VI The Great Leap Forward: 1945 -- 3. The Different 'Generations' of Human Rights: From Human Rights to Good Governance -- I Terminology -- II Development of First Generation and Second Generation Rights at National Level -- First Generation Rights -- Second Generation Rights -- III Development of the Current System of International Protection of Human Rights -- Universal Declaration of Human Rights -- European Convention on Human Rights and the European Social Charter -- The Two UN Covenants on Human Rights -- The Legal Framework Established by the UN Specialized Agencies -- American Convention on Human Rights -- African Charter of Human and Peoples' Rights -- No Regional Instrument in Asia -- Customary Law -- Soft Law -- IV Contents of the International Bill of Human Rights -- Substantive Provisions -- Rights and Obligations under Human Rights Treaties -- Equality and Non-discrimination -- Background -- Legal Instruments Banning Discrimination.

The Unity, and the Difference in Character, of First Generation and Second Generation Rights -- V Third Generation Rights -- The Three Rights -- Right to Development -- Right to Peace -- Right to a Clean Environment -- Uncertainties Surrounding Third Generation Rights -- Holders of the Rights -- Duty Bearers -- Contents -- VI Democracy -- VII Good Governance -- VIII Human Security -- IX Globalization -- X The Shadow of Terrorism -- XI Conclusion -- 4. Universality of Human Rights -- I Introductory Considerations -- II The Legal Dimension -- UDHR -- The Two International Covenants -- Other Treaties -- Vienna World Conference on Human Rights -- Regional Instruments -- III The Value Dimension -- Western Values -- Latin America -- Islamic Countries -- India -- East Asia -- IV The Empirical Dimension -- V Conclusion -- 5. Implementation at National Level -- I Duty Bearers -- States -- International Organizations -- European Union-European Communities -- United Nations -- World Trade Organization -- Transnational Corporations -- II Relationship between International Law and Domestic Law in the Field of Human Rights -- Third Generation Rights -- Second Generation Rights -- First Generation Rights -- European Convention on Human Rights -- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights -- III Place of Human Rights Instruments in the Domestic Legal Order -- IV Implementation of International Human Rights vis-à-vis the Individual -- V Territorial Scope of Application of International Human Rights Instruments -- European Convention on Human Rights -- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights -- 6. The Work of Political Bodies of International Organizations -- I United Nations -- Standard-setting -- Monitoring -- The General Assembly, the HRCion, and its successor, the HRC -- The General Assembly -- Special Procedures -- Outcome.

The High Commissioner for Human Rights -- The Security Council -- II European Union -- Legal Regime -- Monitoring -- III Council of Europe -- IV Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe -- Standard-setting -- Monitoring -- V Conclusion -- 7. The Work of Expert Bodies: Examination of State Reports -- I Introductory Considerations -- II Reporting Systems at Regional Level -- European Convention on Human Rights -- African Charter of Human and Peoples' Rights -- III Reporting Systems at UN Level -- Monitoring Bodies -- Examining State Reports in Practice -- The Early Stages -- Later Developments: The Current Situation -- Reform Proposals -- Contribution of NGOs -- Delayed Reports -- Consequences -- Follow-up -- Effects of Concluding Observations -- General Comments and General Recommendations -- 8. The Work of Expert Bodies: Complaint Procedures and Fact-finding -- I Complaint Procedures -- Stocktaking -- Universal Level -- Interstate Complaint Procedures -- Individual Communication Procedures -- Regional Level -- Interstate Complaint Procedures -- Individual Complaint Procedures -- Reservations -- General Features of Individual Communication Procedures -- Persons Entitled to File Communications -- Rights that Can be Asserted -- Standing-The Victim Requirement -- Exhaustion of Local Remedies -- Other International Procedures of Settlement -- Unsubstantiated Communications -- Absence of Oral Hearings -- Interim Relief -- Outcome -- Non-binding Views -- Follow-up -- Publication of the Case Law -- Quantitative Assessment -- Qualitative Assessment -- II Fact-finding -- General Considerations -- Existing Procedures -- Fact-finding by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights -- Fact-finding by the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights -- Fact-finding by the Committee Against Torture.

Fact-finding by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture -- Optional Protocol to the UN Convention Against Torture -- III Conclusion -- 9. Supervision by International Tribunals -- I Introductory Considerations -- II Worldwide Level -- Advisory Opinions of the ICJ -- Judgments of the ICJ in Contentious Proceedings -- III Regional Level -- European Court of Human Rights -- General Features -- Interstate Applications -- Individual Applications -- Interim Relief -- Reparation -- Enforcement of Judgments -- Inter-American Court of Human Rights -- General Features -- Quantitative Balance Sheet -- Qualitative Balance Sheet -- Interim Relief -- Consequences Attaching to the Finding of a Violation -- African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights -- Court of Justice of the European Communities -- 10. Enforcement by States and the Role of Non-Governmental Organizations -- I General Considerations -- II Action by States -- Diplomatic Protection -- Representations by Diplomatic Means -- Interstate Complaints -- Measures of Retorsion -- Countermeasures -- Treaty Clauses on Observance of Human Rights -- Military Intervention -- Human Rights Enforcement in Practice -- III Action by Non-Governmental Organizations -- Definition of NGOs -- Legitimacy of NGOs -- Activities of NGOs -- The Domestic Field of Action -- The International Field of Action -- 11. Mitigating the Effects of Armed Conflict: Humanitarian Law -- I General Considerations -- Jus ad Bellum, Jus in Bello -- Non-discrimination -- II Brief Historical Survey -- Before World War I -- Between the Two World Wars -- After World War II -- III Prohibition of Specific Weapons -- IV Legal Sources -- Necessity of Humanitarian Law? -- Legal Sources -- Treaties -- Custom -- V Main Issues -- War and Armed Conflict -- Non-international Armed Conflict -- Distinction between Combatants and Civilians.

Distinction between Military Targets and Civilian Objects -- Protection of the Environment, Protection of Human Habitat -- Threshold of Armed Conflict -- Applicability of Common Article 3 -- Declaration on Minimum Humanitarian Standards -- Lacunae in the Legal Regime of Non-International Armed Conflict -- VI Ensuring Observance of, and Respect for, Humanitarian Law -- A Culture of Compliance -- Monitoring -- Countermeasures -- State Responsibility -- 12. Criminal Prosecution of Human Rights Violations -- I General Considerations -- II National Prosecution -- Territorial Jurisdiction -- Extraterritorial Jurisdiction -- III International Prosecution -- International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg -- Ad Hoc Tribunals Established by the Security Council -- International Criminal Court -- Hybrid Criminal Tribunals -- IV A Summary Balance Sheet of the Ad Hoc Tribunals -- Authority of the Security Council -- Customary Nature of International Criminal Law -- Non-international Armed Conflict -- Amnesties -- Pre-trial Detention -- Reparation for Persons Erroneously Prosecuted -- Statistics -- V Conclusion -- 13. Reparation-Civil Claims against Human Rights Violators -- I General Considerations -- II Redress Afforded by the International Community -- III A Cause of Action Under Specific International Regimes -- Reparation under Human Rights Treaties -- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights -- European Convention on Human Rights -- American Convention on Human Rights -- Convention Against Torture -- Conclusion -- Reparation under European Community Law -- Reparation within the Framework of Criminal Prosecution -- Reparation under International Humanitarian Law -- IV Individual Claims under General International Law -- Substantive Law -- Competent Forum -- V Procedures Under Domestic Law -- VI Immunity -- 14. Time for Hope, or Time for Despair?.

Index.