Contents -- Preface 13 -- Abbreviations 15 -- Introduction 19 -- Public International Law v. private interests 21 -- Role of the IMO and the historical development of the area of concern 23 -- 'Run' to the 'Bunkers' 26 -- Interpretation of the text 28 -- Introduction to the relevant Chapters 28 -- Chapter 1: The Convention 29 -- The Need 31 -- The Underlying Doctrines 33 -- Polluter Pays Principle 34 -- Imposition of Strict Liability 35 -- The prevailed tools 36 -- The evolution of the concept 40 -- The Instrument 45 -- "Bunker Oil" 46 -- "Ship" 52 -- Chapter 2: Scope of Application 59 -- (a) Geographical Scope: jurisdiction ratione loci 59 -- (b) Pollution Damage and Preventive Measures: jurisdiction rationemateriae 66 -- Components of Damage 68 -- The important characteristics: 70 -- Externality 70 -- Contamination 71 -- Escape or discharge 74 -- "Preventive measures" 76 -- The notion of 'reasonableness' 78 -- The right to act 80 -- The appropriate instance 81 -- Further loss or damage by Preventive measures 82 -- Exclusions 84 -- Situation under the CLC 84 -- State immunity and its effects 86 -- Chapter 3: Status Quo - Liable and Aggrieved Parties 89 -- Personal Scope of Application: jurisdiction ratione personae 89 -- The Liable Party 89 -- "Ship Owner" 90 -- The ultimate compromise 95 -- Legal implication on responsible corporate entity 96 -- (a) The owner / registered owner 99 -- Application of 'alter ego' 100 -- The role of Mortgagee and Financial Security Provider 102 -- Situations of cessation and abandonment of ownership 103 -- (b) Bareboat charterer 104 -- (c) Manager 106 -- (d) Operator 109 -- Joint and Several Liability 110 -- Multiplicity of ships 111 -- Multiplicity of 'shipowners' 113 -- Convention being the supreme law 113 -- Implication of liability on related parties and 'responder immunity' 115 -- The Victim 119.

Chapter 4: Jurisdiction 123 -- Jurisdiction as proclaimed 123 -- The causative link 124 -- The geographical link 124 -- The collective link 127 -- Suing the appropriate defendant 129 -- Direct actions 130 -- Prescription 133 -- Institution of Actions 135 -- Matters relating to non-States Parties 136 -- Fairness Rule 138 -- The Forum 139 -- The Common Law Systems' Strategy 140 -- The Civil Law Systems' Strategy 142 -- Jurisdiction under the OPA 1990 143 -- Claims for natural resource damages 145 -- Status of environmental organizations and pressure groups 147 -- Chapter 5: Requirements of Liability and Admissibility of Claims 149 -- The Requirements 150 -- Operation of the ship 150 -- Causation 152 -- Factual Causation 153 -- Legal Causation 154 -- (a) conditio sine qua non as the sole cause 155 -- (b) proximate cause test 155 -- (c) adequate causation test 156 -- (d) flexible approach test 157 -- Alternative approaches used by States 157 -- Causation in events of concurrent tragedies and in recurrence 159 -- Concurrent Causes 159 -- Recurring cause 160 -- Uncertain cause 161 -- Existence of Loss or Damage 161 -- Types of damage 162 -- Direct and indirect damage 162 -- Actual and future damage 163 -- Pecuniary and Non-Pecuniary Damage 164 -- Damage to Property 166 -- Damage to Person 167 -- Physical Damage 167 -- Non-Material Personal Damage 167 -- Pure Economic Loss 168 -- Varying claims on Pure Economic Loss and their Admissibility 172 -- Claims by Commercial Fishermen 172 -- Claims other than by Commercial Fishermen 173 -- (a) Pure loss of use 173 -- (b) Pure loss of earning capacity 173 -- (c) Pure loss of holiday and free time 174 -- (d) Costs of un-repairable things 174 -- Environmental Damage, Costs of Restoration and Reparation 175 -- Need of Prevention 177 -- Shipowner's Response 178 -- Costs incurred by Governmental Authorities 179.

Fixed and Additional Costs 180 -- Costs incurred by Independent Contractors 181 -- Salvage of the Ship 181 -- Oil Recovery Process 182 -- Spraying of Dispersants 183 -- Rehabilitation of Wildlife 183 -- Costs incurred by Non-Governmental Agencies, Groups and Interested Parties 184 -- Miscellaneous Costs 185 -- Litigation costs including Professional Fees 186 -- Plaintiffs' Standard of Proof 186 -- Identification of the Respondent 187 -- Certainty as to Causation 187 -- Certainty as to Damage 188 -- Necessity and Reasonableness in taking Preventive Measures 189 -- Chapter 6: Available Defences and Exoneration from Liability 190 -- The defence of "act of war" 193 -- The defence of "act of civil war" 197 -- The defence of "act of hostilities" 1 99 -- The defence of "act of insurrection" 200 -- Specific shortcomings 201 -- The defence of "a natural phenomenon" 204 -- Narrowing the possibilities 207 -- Malicious act of a third party 208 -- Act of piracy as a defence 209 -- Act of barratry as a defence 211 -- Acts of strangers and guests 212 -- The gravity of the onus 213 -- State liability 214 -- The obligation 216 -- Nature of proof 217 -- Proportionate Liability 219 -- Malicious conduct of the Victim 220 -- Contributory negligence 221 -- The existence 222 -- Proving contributory negligence 222 -- Causation 223 -- Duty of care 223 -- Standard of care 223 -- Apportionment of Damage 224 -- Specific problems 225 -- Chapter 7: Limitation of Liability 227 -- Classical Approaches 227 -- Concerns over the issue in the Legal Committee 228 -- 1957 Brussels Limitation Convention 230 -- Insurance as a Basic Element 231 -- The Final Settlement 233 -- The Effect and Application of the Relevant Provision 234 -- Applicable Law 235 -- Limitation of Liability under LLMC 1976 236 -- Scope of Application I 237 -- Persons Entitled to Limit Liability 237.

(a) Shipowners 237 -- (b) Liability Insurers and Financial Security Providers 240 -- (c) Exempted Persons 241 -- Scope Application II 242 -- Category of Ships - Inclusions and Exclusions 243 -- Scope of Application III 245 -- Claims Subject to Limitation 245 -- (A) Claims under Article 2.1(a) 246 -- (B) Claims under Article 2.1(c) 248 -- (C) Claims under Article 2.1(d) and (f) 249 -- Claims Excepted by Limitation 252 -- Conduct Barring Limitation 252 -- Concept of Actual Fault or Privity 253 -- Restriction as to Article 4 254 -- The Person Liable 255 -- His Personal Act or Omission 255 -- Loss and Such Loss 256 -- Intent to Cause such loss 256 -- Recklessly and with Knowledge that such loss would probably result 256 -- Onus of Proof 257 -- Limits of Liability 258 -- Priorities of Claims 260 -- The Procedural Aspects of Limitation 261 -- Invocation without the constitution of a Limitation Fund 263 -- Invocation upon the constitution of a Limitation Fund 264 -- The volume of the Fund and the competent forum 265 -- Distribution of the Fund and safeguards 267 -- Governing law 267 -- Conclusion 269 -- Saving the Respondent 270 -- Avoiding "forum shopping" 271 -- Limitation v. Adequate Compensation 272 -- The absence of a supplementary Fund 272 -- Concluding Remarks 273 -- Bibliography 275.