Contents -- List of Figures and Tables 17 -- Conversion Statistics 18 -- List of Abbreviations 19 -- 1 Introduction 23 -- 2 Analyzing Processes of Political Transformation 35 -- 2.1 Analysis of System Change from the Perspective of Comparative Political Science 36 -- 2.1.1 System Typologies 36 -- 2.1.2 Phasing and Typologies of Transformation 40 -- 2.1.3 The Question of System Consolidation 44 -- 2.1.4 Potential of Political Culture Studies for Analyzing Democratization 47 -- 2.1.5 'Deficient Democracies' - Recognizing the Lack of a Concept 50 -- 2.2 Analyses of Economic and Political Transformation from the Perspective of Development Policy Studies 54 -- 2.2.1 Simultaneous Economic and Political Transformation 55 -- 2.2.2 Shaping Simultaneous Transformation through 'Good Governance' 59 -- 2.2.3 Potential and Limitations of Devolution for Democratization 64 -- 2.3 Approaches to Analyze Transformation as Dynamics of State-Society Relations 72 -- 2.3.1 Critical Assessment of the Concepts of Neo-patrimonialism and the Rent-seeking State 73 -- 2.3.2 The Concept of Stateness and the State-in-Society Approach 77 -- 2.3.3 Concepts of Civil Society from a Liberal Perspective 80 -- 2.3.4 Considerations on Civil Society and State from a Critical Political Economy Perspective 87 -- 2.4 Towards a Comprehensive Analytical Concept of Transformation 94 -- 3 Survey of Transformation in Africa with Focus on Socio-political Dimensions 103 -- 3.1 Authoritarian Systems in Africa 104 -- 3.1.1 Influences of the Cold War on African Political Systems 105 -- 3.1.2 Challenges for African Political Systems on Gaining Independence 107 -- 3.1.3 State-Society Relations under Authoritarian Rule 113 -- 3.2 Patterns of Transformation in Africa 122 -- 3.2.1 Popular Protest and Political Liberalization 122.

3.2.2 Persistence and Change of Governments and the Challenges for Oppositions 128 -- 3.2.3 Hesitant Institutional Reforms 133 -- 3.3 Political Culture in Africa 144 -- 3.3.1 Political Culture from a Local Perspective 144 -- 3.3.2 Political Culture in a National Perspective 148 -- 3.3.3 African Discourses on Changing Political Culture 152 -- 3.4 Implications for the Case Study on Tanzania 153 -- 4 Sites and Methodology of Research 157 -- 4.1 General Background on Tanzania and the Sites of the Case Study 158 -- 4.1.1 Economic Structure 162 -- 4.1.2 Social Structure and Political Orientations in 1995 171 -- 4.2 Method of Field Research 180 -- 4.2.1 Procedure 180 -- 4.2.2 The Question of Benefits from Research 182 -- 4.2.3 Shifting the Research Focus 184 -- 4.3 Data Analysis and Limits of Research 186 -- 5 Patterns of Rule and Political Participation in Tanzania 1961-90 191 -- 5.1 Colonial Heritage and Changes after Independence 191 -- 5.1.1 Institutional Change and Continuity 196 -- 5.1.2 Social Structure in the Rural Areas 201 -- 5.2 Political Participation in the Era of Ujamaa 202 -- 5.2.1 Relations between Peasants and Government 204 -- 5.2.2 Continued Power Struggles between Central and Local Governments 205 -- 5.2.3 'Decentralization' 207 -- 5.2.4 At the Height of the One-Party State 212 -- 5.3 Economic Crisis and Policy Reversal 215 -- 5.3.1 Causes of the Economic Crisis and Attempts to Overcome It 216 -- 5.3.2 Re-introduction of Local Government 221 -- 5.3.3 Problems of Local Government during the 1980s 226 -- 5.3.4 Constitutional Debate and Reforms and the National Elections of 1985 232 -- 5.4 Socio-economic Liberalization 234 -- 5.4.1 Economic Policy under Mwinyi 235 -- 5.4.2 Forms of Social and Political Action in the 1980s 239 -- 6 Departure from Authoritarian Rule: The Tanzanian Way 245 -- 6.1 Steps towards Disentangling Party and State 246.

6.1.1 CCM under Reform Pressure 248 -- 6.1.2 Constitutional Amendments 250 -- 6.1.3 Legislation for Political Parties and Elections 251 -- 6.2 Elections in the Multi-Party System up to 2000 253 -- 6.2.1 The First Local Elections 253 -- 6.2.2 The Presidential and Parliamentary Elections in 1995 255 -- 6.2.3 The Neighbourhood and Village Council Elections in 1999 258 -- 6.2.4 The National and District Council Elections in 2000 263 -- 6.2.5 The Elections in 2005 280 -- 6.3 Development of the Political Parties 281 -- 6.3.1 CCM 283 -- 6.3.2 NCCR-Mageuzi and TLP 259 -- 6.3.3 CUF 302 -- 6.3.4 UDP 305 -- 6.4 Assessment of the Political Culture of the Parties 307 -- 7 Power Shifts between Political Institutions: The Stony Path to Devolution 313 -- 7.1 Rural Citizens' Criticism of State Performance in the Fields of Security and Social Infrastructure 318 -- 7.2 The Local Government Reform Programme 326 -- 7.3 Taxes and Budgets 331 -- 7.3.1 Central Government Finance 331 -- 7.3.2 Local Government Finance 333 -- 7.4 Political Institutions at Village Level 343 -- 7.4.1 The Village Chairperson 345 -- 7.4.2 The Kitongoji Leader and Relations to the Ten-cell Leader 346 -- 7.4.3 The Village Council 348 -- 7.4.4 The Village Assembly 355 -- 7.4.5 Government Officers at Village Level 364 -- 7.5 Political Institutions at District Level 366 -- 7.5.1 Relations between Councillors and Government Officers 368 -- 7.5.2 Councillors and their Electorate 379 -- 7.6 Institutionalized Connections between Citizens and Central Government 385 -- 7.6.1 The President: A Powerful Institution of Central Rule 386 -- 7.6.2 The Member of Parliament - an Institution between Self-interest, Patronage, and Democratic Representation 389 -- 7.6.3 Regional and District Commissioners - Political Institutions Losing Power? 396 -- 7.7 Obstacles to Devolution 408 -- 8 Dynamics of Civil Society 417.

8.1 Socio-economic and Socio-cultural Groups 418 -- 8.1.1 Income-generating Groups 419 -- 8.1.2 Micro-credit Groups 425 -- 8.2 Cooperatives 436 -- 8.2.1 Export Crop Marketing Cooperatives 438 -- 8.2.2 Cooperatives for the Domestic Market 451 -- 8.2.3 Savings and Credit Cooperatives 454 -- 8.2.4 Cooperatives as Social Organizations 455 -- 8.3 Trade Unions 457 -- 8.4 Business and Trade Associations 460 -- 8.5 Religious Organizations 469 -- 8.6 Non-governmental Organizations 478 -- 8.6.1 NGOs with Focus on Development in Rural Districts of Tanzania 481 -- 8.6.2 Relations of District-based NGOs with the Government 491 -- 8.6.3 Nationwide NGOs 495 -- 8.7 Carriers of Public Discourse 501 -- 8.8 The Structure of Tanzanian Civil Society 505 -- 9 Changing Relations between Rural Citizens and State: An Actor-oriented Approach to Analyzing Transformation 511 -- 9.1 Land Conflicts during Political and Economic Transformation 512 -- 9.2 Governmental Interventions in Land Matters 531 -- 9.3 Options for Action and the Use of Democratic Means in Resolving Land Conflicts 543 -- 9.4 Trends in Politcal Culture and the Rule of Law 549 -- 10 Views on Democracy and the Multi-Party System 553 -- 10.1 Results of Afrobarometer Political Culture Surveys 554 -- 10.2 Rural Citizens' Views on Democracy and Explanations Based on Qualitative Research 556 -- 11 Theoretical Outcomes and Conclusion 575 -- References 593 -- Annex -- A - Maps 625 -- B - Interview Partners and Groups 629 -- C - Guidelines for Interviews 630 -- D - Questions of Tanzanian Interview Partners 631.