Cover -- Title page -- Copyright page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Acronyms and Abbreviations -- 1: Introduction -- 1.1 Navigation -- 1.1.1 Navigation-Related Technologies -- 1.1.2 Navigation Modes -- GNSS Overview -- 1.2.1 GPS -- 1.2.2 Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) -- 1.2.3 Galileo -- 1.2.4 Compass (BeiDou-2) -- 1.3 Inertial Navigation Overview -- 1.3.1 Theoretical Foundations -- 1.3.2 Inertial Sensor Technology -- 1.4 GNSS/INS Integration Overview -- 1.4.1 The Role of Kalman Filtering -- 1.4.2 Implementation -- 1.4.3 Applications -- Problem -- References -- 2: Fundamentals of Satellite Navigation Systems -- 2.1 Navigation Systems Considered -- 2.1.1 Systems Other than GNSS -- 2.1.2 Comparison Criteria -- 2.2 Satellite Navigation -- 2.2.1 Satellite Orbits -- 2.2.2 Navigation Solution (Two-Dimensional Example) -- 2.2.3 Satellite Selection and Dilution of Precision (DOP) -- 2.2.4 Example Calculation of DOPS -- 2.3 Time and GPS -- 2.3.1 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) Generation -- 2.3.2 GPS System Time -- 2.3.3 Receiver Computation of UTC -- 2.4 Example: User Position Calculations with No Errors -- 2.4.1 User Position Calculations -- 2.4.2 User Velocity Calculations -- Problem -- References -- 3: Fundamentals of Inertial Navigation -- 3.1 Chapter Focus -- 3.2 Basic Terminology -- 3.3 Inertial Sensor Error Models -- 3.3.1 Zero-Mean Random Errors -- 3.3.2 Fixed-Pattern Errors -- 3.3.3 Sensor Error Stability -- 3.4 Sensor Calibration and Compensation -- 3.4.1 Sensor Biases, Scale Factors, and Misalignments -- 3.4.2 Other Calibration Parameters -- 3.4.3 Calibration Parameter Instabilities -- 3.4.4 Auxilliary Sensors before GNSS -- 3.4.5 Sensor Performance Ranges -- 3.5 Earth Models -- 3.5.1 Terrestrial Navigation Coordinates -- 3.5.2 Earth Rotation -- 3.5.3 Gravity Models -- 3.6 Hardware Implementations.

3.6.1 Gimbaled Implementations -- 3.6.2 Floated Implementation -- 3.6.3 Carouseling and Indexing -- 3.6.4 Strapdown Systems -- 3.6.5 Strapdown Carouseling and Indexing -- 3.7 Software Implementations -- 3.7.1 Example in One Dimension -- 3.7.2 Initialization in Nine Dimensions -- 3.7.3 Gimbal Attitude Implementations -- 3.7.4 Gimbaled Navigation Implementation -- 3.7.5 Strapdown Attitude Implementations -- 3.7.6 Strapdown Navigation Implementation -- 3.7.7 Navigation Computer and Software Requirements -- 3.8 INS Performance Standards -- 3.8.1 Free Inertial Operation -- 3.8.2 INS Performance Metrics -- 3.8.3 Performance Standards -- 3.9 Testing and Evaluation -- 3.9.1 Laboratory Testing -- 3.9.2 Field Testing -- 3.10 Summary -- Problem -- References -- 4: GNSS Signal Structure, Characteristics, and Information Utilization -- 4.1 Legacy GPS Signal Components, Purposes, and Properties -- 4.1.1 Mathematical Signal Models for the Legacy GPS Signals -- 4.1.2 Navigation Data Format -- 4.1.3 GPS Satellite Position Calculations -- 4.1.4 C/A-Code and Its Properties -- 4.1.5 P(Y)-Code and Its Properties -- 4.1.6 L1 and L2 Carriers -- 4.1.7 Transmitted Power Levels -- 4.1.8 Free Space and Other Loss Factors -- 4.1.9 Received Signal Power -- 4.2 Modernization of GPS -- 4.2.1 Areas to Benefit from Modernization -- 4.2.2 Elements of the Modernized GPS -- 4.2.3 L2 Civil Signal (L2C) -- 4.2.4 L5 Signal -- 4.2.5 M-Code -- 4.2.6 L1C Signal -- 4.2.7 GPS Satellite Blocks -- 4.2.8 GPS III -- 4.3 GLONASS Signal Structure and Characteristics -- 4.3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Signals -- 4.3.2 CDMA Modernization -- 4.4 Galileo -- 4.4.1 Constellation and Levels of Services -- 4.4.2 Navigation Data and Signals -- 4.5 Compass/BD -- 4.6 QZSS -- Problem -- References -- 5: GNSS Antenna Design and Analysis -- 5.1 Applications.

5.2 GNSS Antenna Performance Characteristics -- 5.2.1 Size and Cost -- 5.2.2 Frequency and Bandwidth Coverage -- 5.2.3 Radiation Pattern Characteristics -- 5.2.4 Antenna Polarization and Axial Ratio -- 5.2.5 Directivity, Efficiency, and Gain of a GNSS Antenna -- 5.2.6 Antenna Impedance, Standing Wave Ratio, and Return Loss -- 5.2.7 Antenna Bandwidth -- 5.2.8 Antenna Noise Figure -- 5.3 Computational Electromagnetic Models (CEMs) for GNSS Antenna Design -- 5.4 GNSS Antenna Technologies -- 5.4.1 Dipole-Based GNSS Antennas -- 5.4.2 GNSS Patch Antennas -- 5.4.3 Survey-Grade/Reference GNSS Antennas -- 5.5 Principles of Adaptable Phased-Array Antennas -- 5.5.1 Digital Beamforming Adaptive Antenna Array Formulations -- 5.5.2 STAP -- 5.5.3 SFAP -- 5.5.4 Configurations of Adaptable Phased-Array Antennas -- 5.5.5 Relative Merits of Adaptable Phased-Array Antennas -- 5.6 Application Calibration/Compensation Considerations -- Problem -- References -- 6: GNSS Receiver Design and Analysis -- 6.1 Receiver Design Choices -- 6.1.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Application to be Supported -- 6.1.2 Single or Multifrequency Support -- 6.1.3 Number of Channels -- 6.1.4 Code Selections -- 6.1.5 Differential Capability -- 6.1.6 Aiding Inputs -- 6.2 Receiver Architecture -- 6.2.1 Radio Frequency (RF) Front End -- 6.2.2 Frequency Down-Conversion and IF Amplification -- 6.2.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion and Automatic Gain Control -- 6.2.4 Baseband Signal Processing -- 6.3 Signal Acquisition and Tracking -- 6.3.1 Hypothesize about the User Location -- 6.3.2 Hypothesize about Which GNSS Satellites Are Visible -- 6.3.3 Signal Doppler Estimation -- 6.3.4 Search for Signal in Frequency and Code Phase -- 6.3.5 Signal Detection and Confirmation -- 6.3.6 Code Tracking Loop -- 6.3.7 Carrier Phase Tracking Loops -- 6.3.8 Bit Synchronization -- 6.3.9 Data Bit Demodulation.

6.4 Extraction of Information for User Solution -- 6.4.1 Signal Transmission Time Information -- 6.4.2 Ephemeris Data for Satellite Position and Velocity -- 6.4.3 Pseudorange Measurements Formulation Using Code Phase -- 6.4.4 Measurements Using Carrier Phase -- 6.4.5 Carrier Doppler Measurement -- 6.4.6 Integrated Doppler Measurements -- 6.5 Theoretical Considerations in Pseudorange, Carrier Phase, and Frequency Estimations -- 6.5.1 Theoretical Error Bounds for Code Phase Measurement -- 6.5.2 Theoretical Error Bounds for Carrier Phase Measurements -- 6.5.3 Theoretical Error Bounds for Frequency Measurement -- 6.6 High-Sensitivity A-GPS Systems -- 6.6.1 How Assisting Data Improves Receiver Performance -- 6.6.2 Factors Affecting High-Sensitivity Receivers -- 6.7 Software-Defined Radio (SDR) Approach -- 6.8 Pseudolite Considerations -- Problem -- References -- 7: GNSS DATA ERRORS -- 7.1 Data Errors -- 7.2 Ionospheric Propagation Errors -- 7.2.1 Ionospheric Delay Model -- 7.2.2 GNSS SBAS Ionospheric Algorithms -- 7.3 Tropospheric Propagation Errors -- 7.4 The Multipath Problem -- 7.4.1 How Multipath Causes Ranging Errors -- 7.5 Methods of Multipath Mitigation -- 7.5.1 Spatial Processing Techniques -- 7.5.2 Time-Domain Processing -- 7.5.3 Multipath Mitigation Technology (MMT) Technology -- 7.5.4 Performance of Time-Domain Methods -- 7.6 Theoretical Limits for Multipath Mitigation -- 7.6.1 Estimation-Theoretic Methods -- 7.6.2 Minimum Mean-Squared Error (MMSE) Estimator -- 7.6.3 Multipath Modeling Errors -- 7.7 Ephemeris Data Errors -- 7.8 Onboard Clock Errors -- 7.9 Receiver Clock Errors -- 7.10 SA Errors -- 7.11 Error Budgets -- Problem -- References -- 8: Differential GNSS -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Descriptions of Local-Area Differential GNSS (LADGNSS), Wide-Area Differential GNSS (WADGNSS), and Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) -- 8.2.1 LADGNSS.

8.2.2 WADGNSS -- 8.2.3 SBAS -- 8.3 GEO with L1L5 Signals -- 8.3.1 GEO Uplink Subsystem Type 1 (GUST) Control Loop Overview -- 8.4 GUS Clock Steering Algorithm -- 8.4.1 Receiver Clock Error Determination -- 8.4.2 Clock Steering Control Law -- 8.5 GEO Orbit Determination (OD) -- 8.5.1 OD Covariance Analysis -- 8.6 Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) -- 8.6.1 Local-Area Augmentation System (LAAS) -- 8.6.2 Joint Precision Approach and Landing System (JPALS) -- 8.6.3 Enhanced Long-Range Navigation (eLoran) -- 8.7 Measurement/Relative-Based DGNSS -- 8.7.1 Code Differential Measurements -- 8.7.2 Carrier Phase Differential Measurements -- 8.7.3 Positioning Using Double-Difference Measurements -- 8.8 GNSS Precise Point Positioning Services and Products -- 8.8.1 The International GNSS Service (IGS) -- 8.8.2 Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORSs) -- 8.8.3 GPS Inferred Positioning System (GIPSY) and Orbit Analysis Simulation Software (OASIS) -- 8.8.4 Australia's Online GPS Processing System (AUPOS) -- 8.8.5 Scripps Coordinate Update Tool (SCOUT) -- 8.8.6 The Online Positioning User Service (OPUS) -- Problem -- References -- 9: GNSS and GEO Signal Integrity -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1 Range Comparison Method -- 9.1.2 Least-Squares Method -- 9.1.3 Parity Method -- 9.2 SBAS and GBAS Integrity Design -- 9.2.1 SBAS Error Sources and Integrity Threats -- 9.2.2 GNSS-Associated Errors -- 9.2.3 GEO-Associated Errors -- 9.2.4 Receiver and Measurement Processing Errors -- 9.2.5 Estimation Errors -- 9.2.6 Integrity-Bound Associated Errors -- 9.2.7 GEO Uplink Errors -- 9.2.8 Mitigation of Integrity Threats -- 9.3 SBAS Example -- 9.4 Summary -- 9.5 Future: GIC -- Problem -- References -- 10: Kalman Filtering -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 What Is a Kalman Filter? -- 10.1.2 How Does It Work? -- 10.1.3 How Is It Used? -- 10.2 Kalman Filter Correction Update.

10.2.1 Deriving the Kalman Gain.