Biomarkers and Human Biomonitoring -- Contents -- Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Biomonitoring -- 1.1 Definitions -- 1.2 HBM: Increasingly used as a Tool in Environmental Health and Medicine -- 1.3 Validation -- 1.4 Statistical Power or Sample Size -- 1.5 Ethical Issues -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 2 Examples of Ongoing Studies -- Chapter 2A Health-related Environmental Monitoring in Germany: German Environmental Survey (GerES) and Environmental Specimen Bank (ESB) -- 2A.1 Introduction -- 2A.2 Examples of Major Current Initiatives -- 2A.2.1 German Environmental Survey (GerES) -- 2A.2.2 German Environmental Specimen Bank -- 2A.3 Perspectives and Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 2B Examples of Ongoing European Surveys: Romania -- 2B.1 Introduction -- 2B.2 Environmental History in Romania -- 2B.3 Background -- 2B.4 Biomonitoring Data Collected from Â'Â'Hot-SpotÂ'Â' Areas in Romania -- 2B.4.1 Lead Exposure and Blood Lead Levels in a Highly Contaminated Area in the Surroundings of a Primary Smelter: Copsa Mica -- 2B.4.2 Results of the Studies on Lead Exposure Conducted in the Copsa Mica Area -- 2B.4.3 Discussion -- 2B.5 Biological Screening for Lead in Romania (at a National Level) -- 2B.6 Arsenic Exposure via Drinking Water in the Northwestern Part of Romania -- 2B.6.1 Geogenic Inorganic Arsenic Contamination of Drinking Water Sources in Northwestern Romania -- 2B.6.2 Results of the Studies on Arsenic Conducted in the Northwestern Area of Romania -- 2B.6.3 The ASHRAM Study -- 2B.7 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 2C Examples of Ongoing International Surveys: France -- 2C.1 Introduction -- 2C.2 Studies Focused on a Specific Pollutant -- 2C.2.1 The Dioxins and Incinerators Study (2005Â-2007) -- 2C.2.2 PCBs and the River Fishermen Study (2009Â-2011).

2C.2.3 Childhood Lead Study (2008Â-2011) -- 2C.2.4 Significance and Perspectives -- 2C.3 National Multipollutant HBM Surveys -- 2C.3.1 Nutrition and Health Survey with an HBM Component: ENNS (2006Â-2007) -- 2C.3.2 The National Survey of the Current National HBM Strategy -- 2C.3.3 ELFE Cohort -- 2C.4 Perspectives and Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2D Examples of Ongoing International Surveys: Canada -- 2D.1 Introduction -- 2D.2 Examples of Major Current Initiatives -- 2D.2.1 Canadian Health Measures Survey -- 2D.2.2 MaternalÂ-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) Study: A National Profile of In Utero and Lactational Exposure to Environmental Contaminants -- 2D.2.3 Northern Contaminants Program -- 2D.2.4 Mercury Biomonitoring in First Nations People Living on Reserves South of the 60th Parallel -- 2D.3 Perspectives and Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 2E Biomarkers in Human Biomonitoring Studies: an Indian Perspective -- 2E.1 Introduction -- 2E.2 Biomarkers of Exposure -- 2E.2.1 Assessment of Chemicals/Metabolites as Biomarkers of Exposure -- 2E.2.2 DNA Damage as a Biomarker of Exposure -- 2E.3 Biomarkers of Effect -- 2E.4 Biomarkers of Susceptibility -- 2E.5 Newer Techniques -- 2E.5.1 Metabolomics -- 2E.5.2 In silico Techniques -- 2E.6 Multipronged Approach to Unravel the Genotoxicity of Benzene in Humans -- 2E.7 Conclusion -- 2E.8 Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 2F The Flemish Environment and Health Study (FLEHS) - Second Survey (2007-2011): Establishing Reference Values for Biomarkers of Exposure in the Flemish Population -- 2F.1 Introduction -- 2F.2 Methods -- 2F.2.1 Study Population -- 2F.2.2 Fieldwork -- 2F.2.3 Laboratory Analysis -- 2F.2.4 Comparison with Health-based Guidance Values -- 2F.2.5 Statistical Analysis -- 2F.3 Results -- 2F.3.1 Participation Rate.

2F.3.2 Characteristics of Study Population -- 2F.3.3 Biomarkers of Exposure -- 2F.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Chapter 2G Harmonized Human Biomonitoring in Europe: Activities Towards an EU HBM Framework -- 2G.1 Introduction -- 2G.2 Policy Support Towards a Coordinated European Approach -- 2G.3 Step by Step Towards a Consistent System for HBM in Europe -- 2G.3.1 Challenges for Building up an HBM System in Europe -- 2G.3.2 The European Coordination Action on Human Biomonitoring -- 2G.4 The Common European Pilot Study Protocol (EU Consensus Protocol) -- 2G.4.1 The Major Provisions of the Common European Pilot Study Protocol -- 2G.4.2 Protocol Provisions for the Pilot Study Management -- 2G.4.3 Protocol Provisions for Quality Assurance -- 2G.5 Conclusion and Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 3 Biomarkers of Exposure -- Chapter 3A Phthalates: Biomarkers and Human Biomonitoring -- 3A.1 Introduction -- 3A.1.1 Production and Uses -- 3A.1.2 Toxicity -- 3A.1.3 Legislation and Regulation -- 3A.2 Sources of Exposure -- 3A.2.1 Ubiquitous Sources -- 3A.2.2 Specific Sources -- 3A.3 Different Approaches to Assess Human Exposure to Phthalates -- 3A.4 Premises for Human Biomonitoring -- 3A.4.1 Human Metabolism Â- Biomarkers of Exposure -- 3A.4.2 Selection of Biological Matrix -- 3A.5 Data on Internal Exposures (Body Burden) -- 3A.5.1 Biomonitoring Programmes -- 3A.5.2 Variability in Exposure and Urinary Biomarkers -- 3A.6 Estimation of Daily Intakes -- 3A.6.1 Calculation Models -- 3A.6.2 Calculated Daily Intakes -- 3A.6.3 Temporal Trends -- 3A.7 Risk Assessment based on Biomonitoring Data -- 3A.7.1 General Population -- 3A.7.2 High Exposure Groups -- 3A.7.3 Cumulative Exposures -- 3A.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3B Biomarkers of Exposure: Perfluoroalkyl Compounds -- 3B.1 Background -- 3B.2 Pathways of Human Exposure.

3B.3 Human Biomonitoring -- 3B.3.1 Pharmacokinetics -- 3B.3.2 Analytical Approaches and Challenges -- 3B.3.3 Internal Exposure -- 3B.3.4 Time Trends -- 3B.3.5 Relationship to Demographic Variables -- 3B.3.6 Total Exposure in General Populations -- 3B.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3C Biomarkers of Exposure: Polychlorinated Dibenzo-pdioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzofuranes -- 3C.1 Background -- 3C.2 Pathways of Human Exposure -- 3C.3 Human Biomonitoring -- 3C.3.1 Toxicokinetics -- 3C.3.2 Analytical Approaches and Challenges -- 3C.3.3 Internal Exposure -- 3C.3.4 Time Trends -- 3C.3.5 Relationship to Demographic Variables e.g. Â'Â'Hot SpotsÂ'Â' -- References -- Chapter 3D Brominated Flame Retardants: Biomarkers and Human Biomonitoring -- 3D.1 Brominated Flame Retardants: a Chemically Diverse Group of Compounds -- 3D.1.1 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) -- 3D.1.2 Polybrominated Biphenyls -- 3D.1.3 Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and Other BFRs -- 3D.2 Toxicity: From Lifesavers to Contaminants -- 3D.2.1 Toxicokinetics -- 3D.2.2 Toxicity -- 3D.3 Exposure to BFRs: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches -- 3D.3.1 Sources of Exposure -- 3D.3.2 Exposure Scenarios -- 3D.4 Body Burdens of BFRs: Evidence of Geographical Differences -- 3D.4.1 Adipose Tissue -- 3D.4.2 Blood -- 3D.5 Perinatal Exposure: the Critical Window of Exposure -- 3D.5.1 Umbilical Cord Blood and Placenta -- 3D.5.2 Human Perfusion Model -- 3D.5.3 Breast Milk -- 3D.6 Human Biomonitoring of BFRs -- 3D.6.1 Temporal Trends -- 3D.6.2 Spatial and Demographic Trends -- 3D.6.3 Matrix -- 3D.6.4 Compounds -- References -- Chapter 3E Lead -- 3E.1 Background -- 3E.2 Exposure Pathways -- 3E.3 Toxicokinetics -- 3E.3.1 Absorption -- 3E.3.2 Distribution -- 3E.3.3 Excretion -- 3E.4 Half-lives, Bioaccumulation -- 3E.5 Biomarkers of Exposure -- 3E.5.1 Lead in Blood.

3E.5.2 Lead in Plasma or Serum -- 3E.5.3 Lead in Urine -- 3E.5.4 Bone Lead -- 3E.5.5 Lead in Hair -- 3E.6 Biomarkers of Effect -- 3E.7 Time Trends -- 3E.7.1 Adults -- 3E.7.2 Children -- 3E.8 Prediction of B-Pb Levels on the Basis of Multimedia Lead Exposure -- 3E.9 Associations between B-Pb Levels and Early Adverse Health Effects in Humans -- 3E.9.1 Adults -- 3E.9.2 Children -- 3E.10 Current and Proposed Admissible B-Pb Levels -- 3E.10.1 Adults -- 3E.10.2 Children -- 3E.11 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3F Biomonitoring of Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons -- 3F.1 Introduction -- 3F.2 Human Health Risk Characterization of Exposure to PAH -- 3F.3 Biomarkers for Complex Mixtures -- 3F.3.1 Types of Biomarker -- 3F.3.2 What Makes a Good Exposure Biomarker for Complex Mixtures? -- 3F.3.3 Implications for Biomarkers of PAH Exposure -- 3F.4 Biomonitoring of Exposure to PAH -- 3F.4.1 Biomarkers of Exposure -- 3F.4.2 Biomarkers of Effective Dose -- 3F.5 Biomarkers of Exposure: Use in Risk Assessment -- 3F.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3G Bisphenol A -- 3G.1 Introduction -- 3G.2 Production of BPA -- 3G.3 BPA Regulation -- 3G.4 The Metabolism of BPA -- 3G.4.1 Human Metabolism of BPA -- 3G.4.2 Rodent Metabolism of BPA -- 3G.5 Toxicity -- 3G.5.1 Human Toxicity -- 3G.5.2 Molecular Effects of BPA -- 3G.5.3 Animal Studies of Endocrine Disruption -- 3G.6 BPA Exposure -- 3G.7 Measurements in Biological Samples -- 3G.7.1 Urine -- 3G.7.2 Blood samples -- 3G.7.3 The Umbilical Cord Blood and Placenta -- 3G.7.4 Breast Milk and Adipose Tissue -- 3G.8 Future Biomonitoring of BPA -- References -- Chapter 3H Mercury: Biomarkers of Exposure and Human Biomonitoring -- 3H.1 Background -- 3H.1.1 Chemical Structures, Compound Classes -- 3H.1.2 Production and Use -- 3H.1.3 Sources of Mercury in the Environment -- 3H.1.4 Environmental Fate.

3H.2 Exposure Pathways.