Evolution's Destiny -- Contents -- Glossary -- Abbreviations -- About the Authors -- Chapter 1 Outline of the Main Chemical Factors in Evolution -- 1.1 Introduction to the Chemistry of the Ecosystem -- 1.1.1 The Involvement of the Elements in Evolution -- 1.2 Equilibrium and Steady State Conditions -- 1.3 Solubility -- 1.4 Complex Ion Formation -- 1.5 Standard Oxidation/Reduction Potentials -- 1.6 Rate Controls and Catalysis -- 1.7 The Dangers of Catalysis -- 1.8 Diffusion -- 1.9 Irreversibility, Chaos and Predictability -- 1.10 Summary -- References -- Chapter 2 Geological Evolution with Some Biological Intervention -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Physical Evolution from the Earliest Times to Today -- 2.3 The Value of Isotope Studies: Indicators of Chemical Changes and Geochemical Dates -- 2.4 The Early Chemical Development of the Environment before 3.0 Ga -- 2.5 Energy Capture and Surface Geochemical Changes: The Beginning of Organic Chemistry and Oxygen in the Atmosphere -- 2.6 The Environment after 3.0 Ga: Revolution in Redox Chemistry before 0.54 Ga -- 2.7 Sulfur Isotope Fractionation from 3.5 to 0.5 Ga -- Dominance of Iron/Sulfur Buffering -- 2.8 Evolving Mineral Outputs from the Ocean: Further Evidence for Redox Chemistry before 0.5 Ga -- 2.8.1 Banded Iron Formations and the State of Iron in Solution -- 2.8.2 Uranium and Thorium Minerals -- 2.9 Quantitative Analysis of Oxidation Conditions -- 2.10 Geochemical Changes of Trace Elements -- 2.10.1 Rare Earth Probes of the Environment -- 2.10.2 Trace Transition Metals in the Sea -- 2.11 The Non-Uniform Sea -- 2.12 Summary of Weathering from 3.5 Ga to 0.75 Ga -- 2.12.1 Weathering and Chemical Conditions from 0.75 Ga -- 2.12.2 Changes in Major Non-Redox Mineral Elements in the Sea from 0.54 Ga -- 2.12.3 Carbon Isotopes -- 2.12.4 Oxygen Isotopes.

2.13 Summary of Geological 'Inorganic' Chemistry Evolution -- 2.14 A Note: The Relationship between Metal Structures in Organisms, Minerals and Chemical Models -- References -- Chapter 3 Organism Development from the Fossil Record and the Chemistry of the Nature of Biominerals -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 The Fossil Record -- 3.3 Extinctions -- 3.4 Types of Biominerals -- 3.5 The Chemistry of Biominerals: The Handling of Inorganic Elements -- 3.6 The Chemistry of Biominerals: Organic Components, Composites -- 3.7 Shapes of Organisms and Biominerals and Genetics -- 3.8 Induced and Controlled Biomineralisation and Genetics -- 3.9 Molecular Fossils -- 3.10 Carbon and Carbon/Hydrogen Deposits -- 3.11 Sulfur Deposits -- 3.12 Conclusions -- 3.13 Note -- References -- Chapter 4 Cells: Their Basic Organic Chemistry and their Environment -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 The Proposed Beginnings of Life: Anaerobic Prokaryotes -- 4.2.1 Energy Transduction and Use -- 4.3 Major Features of the Original Anaerobic Organic Chemistry -- 4.4 The Genome and the Proteome: Concentration Terms and Controls of Expression -- 4.4.1 Differences between Anaerobic Cell Types -- 4.5 Internal Structure of Prokaryotes and Production of New Proteins -- 4.5.1 Prokaryote Cell Walls and Membranes -- 4.6 The Essence of the Chemistry of Anaerobic Life -- 4.6.1 A Note on Prokaryote Diversity -- 4.7 Resources and the Coming of Oxygen: Micro-Aerobic and Aerobic Prokaryotes -- 4.8 The Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.9 The Eukaryote Cell Nucleus -- 4.10 Filaments in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.11 Vesicles in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.12 Protection in Single-Cell Eukaryotes -- 4.13 Genetic Analysis of Unicellular Eukaryotes: Algae and Metazoans -- 4.14 Summary of the Evolution of Unicellular Eukaryotes -- 4.15 The Multicellular Eukaryotes.

4.16 The Evolution of the Divisions in Space in Multicellular Organisms -- 4.17 Control of Growth and Shapes -- 4.18 Building Larger Structures: Internal and Extracellular Tissue Proteins -- 4.19 The Evolution of Biominerals and their Associated Structures -- 4.20 Extracellular Fluids -- 4.21 Signalling with Organic Molecules and Electrolytic Gradients in Multicellular Eukaryotes -- 4.22 Genetic Analysis of Multicellular Animals -- 4.23 Loss of Genes and Organism Collaboration: Internal and External Symbiosis -- 4.24 Summary of the Distinctive Features of Biological Organic Chemistry -- References -- Chapter 5 Other Major Elements in Organism Evolution -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Phosphorus in Cells -- 5.3 Sulfur in Cells -- 5.4 An Introduction to Magnesium, Calcium and Silicon Chemistry in Organisms -- 5.5 Magnesium in Cells -- 5.6 Calcium in Organisms -- 5.7 Introduction to Signalling -- 5.7.1 Detailed Calcium Protein Signalling and its Evolution in Eukaryotes -- 5.7.2 Weaker Binding Sites in Vesicles -- 5.8 Sodium/Potassium Messages -- 5.9 The Evolution of Biominerals -- 5.10 Calcium and Phosphates: Apatite -- 5.11 Silica -- 5.12 The Nature of the Matrices Supporting Mineralisation: Summary -- 5.13 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6 Trace Elements in the Evolution of Organisms and the Ecosystem -- 6.1 Introduction -- PART A. The Chemistry of the Trace Elements -- 6.2 The Availability of the Trace Elements -- 6.3 The Principles of Binding and Transfer of Trace Elements in Cells -- 6.4 The Importance of Quantitative Binding Strengths and Exchange in Cells -- 6.5 Examples of the Thermodynamic and Kinetic Limitations on Uptake of Metal Ions -- Part B. The Evolution of the Metalloproteins, the Metallomes and their Functional Value -- 6.6 Introduction -- 6.7 The Evolution of the Metalloproteins of Prokaryotes.

6.8 The Evolution of the Metalloproteins of Eukaryotes -- 6.9 Survey of the Evolving Uses of Trace Elements -- 6.10 Effects of Metal Ion Limitations and Excesses on Growth -- 6.11 The Value of Zinc and Cadmium: 'Carbonic Anhydrases' -- 6.12 The Special Case of Two Non-Metals: Selenium and Iodine -- 6.13 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7 The Amalgamation of the Chemical and the Genetic Approaches to Evolution -- Part A. A Summary of the Chemical Approach -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The Reasons for the Conditions of Earth Before Life Began and its Evolution: Equilibrium, Thermodynamics and Kinetic Limitations -- 7.3 The Reasons for the Evolution of Organic Chemistry Before Life Began: Kinetic and Energy Controls -- 7.4 The Direct and Indirect, Deduced, Evidence for Evolution of the System: Environment and Organisms -- 7.5 Anaerobic Cellular Chemistry to 3.0 Ga -- 7.6 The Oxidation of the System -- 7.7 Summary of the Evolution of the Oxidative Chemistry of the Elements -- 7.8 Summary of Why the Chemistry of the Environment/Organism System Arose and Evolved -- 7.9 Added Note on a Novel Genetic Analysis Related to Chemical Development -- Part B. The Connections Between the Chemical, the Biological and the Genetic Approaches to Evolution -- 7.10 The Nature of Genes: Gains and Losses of Genes and Inheritance -- 7.11 DNA Gene Duplication: A Possible Resolution of the Problem of Gene/Environment Interaction -- 7.12 Epigenetics and the Mechanism of Duplication -- 7.13 The Definition of Species and Symbiosis -- Part C. Concluding Perspectives -- 7.14 Final Summary of Chemical Evolution with Reproduction -- 7.15 The Chemical System and Mankind Today and its Future -- 7.16 A Note on Gaia -- References -- Subject Index.