Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface to the Fourth Edition -- Preface to the Third Edition -- Acknowledgments -- Symbols -- 1 The Scope of Environmental Physics -- 2 Properties of Gases and Liquids -- 2.1 Gases and Water Vapor -- 2.1.1 Pressure, Volume, and Temperature -- 2.1.2 The Hydrostatic Equation -- 2.1.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics, and Specific Heats -- 2.1.4 Latent Heat -- 2.1.5 Lapse Rate -- 2.1.6 Potential Temperature -- 2.1.7 Water Vapor and its Specification -- 2.1.7.1 Vapor Pressure -- 2.1.7.2 Dew-Point Temperature -- 2.1.7.3 Saturation Vapor Pressure Deficit -- 2.1.7.4 Mixing Ratio -- 2.1.7.5 Specific and Absolute Humidity -- 2.1.7.6 Virtual Temperature -- 2.1.7.7 Relative Humidity -- 2.1.7.8 Wet-Bulb Temperature -- 2.1.7.9 Summary of Methods for Specifying Water Vapor Amount -- 2.1.8 Other Gases -- 2.1.8.1 Specifying Trace Gas Concentrations -- 2.2 Liquid -- 2.2.1 Water Content and Potential -- 2.2.2 Liquid-Air Interfaces -- 2.3 Stable Isotopes -- 2.4 Problems -- 3 Transport of Heat, Mass, and Momentum -- 3.1 General Transfer Equation -- 3.2 Molecular Transfer Processes -- 3.2.1 Momentum and Viscosity -- 3.2.2 Heat and Thermal Conductivity -- 3.2.3 Mass Transfer and Diffusivity -- 3.3 Diffusion Coefficients -- 3.3.1 Resistances to Transfer -- 3.3.1.1 Alternative Units for Resistance and Conductance -- 3.4 Diffusion of Particles (Brownian Motion) -- 3.5 Problems -- 4 Transport of Radiant Energy -- 4.1 The Origin and Nature of Radiation -- 4.1.1 Absorption and Emission of Radiation -- 4.1.2 Full or Black Body Radiation -- 4.1.3 Wien's Law -- 4.1.4 Stefan's Law -- 4.1.5 Planck's Law -- 4.1.6 Quantum Unit -- 4.1.7 Radiative Exchange: Small Temperature Differences -- 4.2 Spatial Relations -- 4.2.1 Cosine Law for Emission and Absorption -- 4.2.2 Reflection -- 4.2.3 Radiance and Irradiance.

4.2.4 Attenuation of a Parallel Beam -- 4.3 Problems -- 5 Radiation Environment -- 5.1 Solar Radiation -- 5.1.1 Solar Constant -- 5.1.2 Sun-Earth Geometry -- 5.1.3 Spectral Quality -- 5.2 Attenuation of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere -- 5.3 Solar Radiation at the Ground -- 5.3.1 Direct Radiation -- 5.3.2 Diffuse Radiation -- 5.3.3 Angular Distribution of Diffuse Radiation -- 5.3.4 Total (Global) Radiation -- 5.3.4.1 Spectrum of Total Solar Radiation -- 5.4 Terrestrial Radiation -- 5.4.1 Terrestrial Radiation from Cloudless Skies -- 5.4.2 Terrestrial Radiation from Cloudy Skies -- 5.5 Net Radiation -- 5.6 Problems -- 6 Microclimatology of Radiation (i) Radiative Properties of Natural Materials -- 6.1 Radiative Properties of Natural Materials -- 6.1.1 Water -- 6.1.1.1 Reflection -- 6.1.1.2 Transmission -- 6.1.2 Soils, Metals, and Glass -- 6.1.3 Leaves -- 6.1.4 Canopies of Vegetation -- 6.1.5 Animals -- 6.2 Problems -- 7 Microclimatology of Radiation 0pt (ii) Radiation Interception by Solid Structures -- 7.1 Geometric Principles -- 7.1.1 Direct Solar Radiation -- 7.1.1.1 Shape Factors -- 7.1.2 Diffuse Radiation -- 7.1.2.1 Shape Factors -- 7.2 Problems -- 8 Microclimatology of Radiation (iii) Interception by Plant Canopies and Animal Coats -- 8.1 Interception of Radiation by Plant Canopies -- 8.1.1 Black Leaves -- 8.1.1.1 Direct Radiation -- 8.1.1.2 Diffuse Radiation -- 8.1.2 Irradiance of Foliage -- 8.1.2.1 Practical Aspects -- 8.1.3 Leaves with Spectral Properties -- 8.1.3.1 Theory and Prediction -- 8.1.3.2 Absorbed and Intercepted Radiation -- 8.1.4 Daily Integration of Absorbed Radiation -- 8.1.5 Remote Sensing -- 8.2 Interception of Radiation by Animal Coats -- 8.3 Net Radiation -- 8.3.1 Net Radiation Measurement -- 8.4 Problems -- 9 Momentum Transfer -- 9.1 Boundary Layers -- 9.1.1 Skin Friction -- 9.1.2 Form Drag.

9.2 Momentum Transfer to Natural Surfaces -- 9.2.1 Drag on Leaves -- 9.2.2 Wind Profiles and Drag on Extensive Surfaces -- 9.2.3 Drag on Particles -- 9.3 Lodging and Windthrow -- 9.3.1 Lodging of Crops -- 9.3.2 Drag on Trees -- 9.3.2.1 Wind Forces on an Isolated Tree -- 9.3.2.2 Wind Forces on Trees in Forests -- 9.4 Problems -- 10 Heat Transfer -- 10.1 Convection -- 10.1.1 Non-Dimensional Groups -- 10.1.2 Forced Convection -- 10.1.3 Free Convection -- 10.1.4 Mixed Convection -- 10.1.5 Laminar and Turbulent Flow -- 10.1.6 Resistances to Convective Heat Transfer -- 10.1.6.1 Example -- 10.2 Measurements of Convection -- 10.2.1 Plane Surfaces -- 10.2.2 Leaves -- 10.2.2.1 Influence of Leaf Shape and Leaf Hairs -- 10.2.3 Cylinders and Spheres -- 10.2.3.1 Mammals -- 10.2.3.2 Birds -- 10.2.3.3 Insects -- 10.2.3.4 Conifer Leaves -- 10.3 Conduction -- 10.4 Insulation -- 10.4.1 Insulation of Animals -- 10.4.2 Tissue -- Coats-Mixed Regimes -- 10.5 Problems -- 11 Mass Transfer (i) Gases and Water Vapor -- 11.1 Non-Dimensional Groups -- 11.1.1 Forced Convection -- 11.1.2 Free Convection -- 11.2 Measurements of Mass Transfer -- 11.2.1 Plane Surfaces -- 11.2.2 Cylinders -- 11.2.3 Spheres -- 11.3 Ventilation -- 11.4 Mass Transfer Through Pores -- 11.4.1 Leaf Stomatal Resistances -- 11.4.2 Measurements of Diffusion Resistances -- 11.4.2.1 Leaves, Fungi, and Fruit -- 11.4.2.2 Insects and Eggs -- 11.4.3 Calculation of Diffusion Resistances -- 11.4.4 Mass Transfer and Pressure -- 11.5 Mass Transfer through Coats and Clothing -- 11.6 Problems -- 12 Mass Transfer (ii) Particles -- 12.1 Steady Motion -- 12.1.1 Sedimentation Velocity -- 12.2 Non-Steady Motion -- 12.3 Particle Deposition and Transport -- 12.3.1 Examples of Impaction -- 12.3.2 Factors Influencing Particle Retention -- 12.3.3 Influence of Deposition on the Diffusion of Particles in the Atmosphere.

12.3.4 Deposition of Hygroscopic Particles -- 12.3.5 Particle Deposition in the Lungs -- 12.3.5.1 Airway Characteristics -- 12.3.5.2 Deposition Mechanisms -- 12.4 Problems -- 13 Steady-State Heat Balance (i) Water Surfaces, Soil, and Vegetation -- 13.1 Heat Balance Equation -- 13.1.1 Convection and Long-Wave Radiation -- 13.2 Heat Balance of Thermometers -- 13.2.1 Dry-Bulb -- 13.2.2 Wet-Bulb -- 13.3 Heat Balance of Surfaces -- 13.3.1 Wet Surface -- 13.3.1.1 Adiabatic Systems -- 13.3.1.2 Non-Adiabatic Systems: Development of the Penman Equation -- 13.3.1.3 Isothermal Net Radiation -- 13.3.2 Evaporation from Open Water Surfaces -- 13.3.3 Dependence of Evaporation Rate on Weather -- 13.3.4 Potential Evaporation -- 13.3.5 Leaf Heat Balance: Introduction to the Penman-Monteith Equation -- 13.3.6 Dew and Frost -- 13.4 Developments From the Penman and Penman-Monteith Equations -- 13.4.1 Extension to Larger Scales: the Big-Leaf Model -- 13.4.2 Reference Evaporation -- 13.4.3 Specified Surface Humidity -- 13.4.4 Specified Surface Wet-Bulb Depression -- 13.4.5 Equilibrium Evaporation -- 13.4.6 Coupling Between Vegetation and the Atmosphere -- 13.5 Problems -- 14 Steady-State Heat Balance (ii) Animals -- 14.1 Heat Balance Components -- 14.1.1 Metabolism (M) -- 14.1.2 Units for Metabolism -- 14.1.3 Latent Heat (λE) -- 14.1.4 Convection (C) -- 14.1.5 Conduction (G) -- 14.1.6 Storage (S) -- 14.2 The Thermo-Neutral Diagram -- 14.3 Specification of the Environment-The Effective Temperature -- 14.3.1 Radiation Increment -- 14.4 Case Studies -- 14.4.1 Locust -- 14.4.2 Sheep -- 14.4.3 Man -- 14.4.4 Apparent Equivalent Temperature -- 14.4.5 Sweating Man -- 14.4.6 Heat Balance of Long Distance Runners -- 14.5 Problems -- 15 Transient Heat Balance -- 15.1 Time Constant -- 15.2 General Cases -- 15.2.1 Step Change -- 15.2.1.1 Examples -- 15.2.2 Ramp Change.

15.2.3 Harmonic Change -- 15.3 Heat Flow in Soil -- 15.3.1 Soil Thermal Properties -- 15.3.2 Formal Analysis of Heat Flow -- 15.3.3 Modification of Soil Thermal Regimes -- 15.4 Problems -- 16 Micrometeorology 0pt(i) Turbulent Transfer, Profiles, and Fluxes -- 16.1 Turbulent Transfer -- 16.1.1 Boundary Layer Development -- 16.1.2 Properties of Turbulence -- 16.1.3 Eddy Covariance -- 16.1.3.1 Reynolds Averaging -- 16.1.3.2 Eddy Transfer -- 16.2 Flux-Gradient Methods -- 16.2.1 Profiles -- 16.2.2 Momentum Transfer -- 16.2.2.1 Behavior of z0 and d with Vegetation Height and Structure -- 16.2.3 Aerodynamic Resistance -- 16.2.4 Fluxes of Heat, Water Vapor, and Mass -- 16.2.4.1 Profiles and Stability -- 16.3 Methods for Indirect Measurements of Flux Above Canopies -- 16.3.1 Aerodynamic Method -- 16.3.1.1 The Aerodynamic Method in Non-Neutral Stability -- 16.3.2 Bowen Ratio Method -- 16.4 Relative Merits of Methods of Flux Measurement -- 16.5 Turbulent Transfer in Canopies -- 16.6 Density Corrections to Flux Measurements -- 16.7 Problems -- 17 Micrometeorology 0pt(ii) Interpretation of Flux Measurements -- 17.1 Resistance Analogs -- 17.1.1 Canopy Resistance -- 17.1.2 The Additional Aerodynamic Resistance for Heat and Mass Transfer -- 17.1.3 ``Apparent'' and ``True'' Canopy Resistances -- 17.1.4 Canopy Resistances for Transfer of Pollutant Gases -- 17.2 Case Studies -- 17.2.1 Water Vapor and Transpiration -- 17.2.1.1 Evaporation Rates from Wet Canopies -- 17.2.1.2 Annual Variation of Evaporation and Transpiration -- 17.2.1.3 Evaporation from Forest Understorey -- 17.2.2 Carbon Dioxide and Growth -- 17.2.2.1 Carbon Budget of Agricultural Crops -- 17.2.2.2 Carbon Budget of Forests -- 17.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide and Other Pollutant Fluxes to Crops -- 17.3 Measurement and Modeling of Transport within Canopies -- 17.3.1 Transfer Processes in Canopies.

17.3.2 Synthesizing Profiles in Canopies.