Deserving Citizenship -- Copyright -- Contents -- Acknowledgements -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. Structure, Research Questions and Methodology -- 1.2. Delineation of the Research -- 1.3. Existing Studies -- 1.4. Structure of the Book -- 2. Justifying Citizenship Tests -- 2.1. Dimensions of Citizenship -- 2.1.1. Citizenship as Legal Status ('What You Get') -- 2.1.2. Citizenship as Activity ('What You Owe') -- 2.1.3. Citizenship as Identity ('What You Feel') -- 2.2. Theoretical Foundations for Conditions for Naturalisation -- 2.2.1. Liberal Citizenship -- 2.2.2. Republican and Communitarian Critiques of Liberalism -- 2.2.2.1. The Republican Account of Citizenship -- 2.2.2.2. Communitarian Citizenship -- 2.3. Conclusions -- 3. Repairing the Failures of the Past: The Introduction of a Citizenship Test in the Netherlands -- 3.1. From Informal Interview to Formalised Test: Debates on Dutch Nationality Law from 1985 to 2006 -- 3.1.1. The 1985 Dutch Nationality Act and the Minorities' Policy -- 3.1.2. Revision of the Dutch Nationality Act -- 3.1.3. From Naturalisation Test to Integration Examination -- 3.2. Testing Integration as a Condition for Naturalisation -- 3.3. Conclusions -- 4. 'Deutschland sucht den Superstaatsbürger': Integration Requirements in German Nationality Law -- 4.1. Testing Integration as a Condition for Naturalisation Prior to the 2000 Reform -- 4.2. The Reform of 2000: Further Liberalisation? -- 4.3. Amendments following the Zuwanderungsgesetz -- 4.4. Proposals to Change the Staatsangehörigkeitsgesetz Put Forward -- 4.5. The Government's Proposals in the Richtlinienumsetzungsgesetz -- 4.6. Debates about the Naturalisation Test -- 4.7. Conclusions -- 5. On a Journey to Citizenship: Earning the Right to Full Membership in the UK.

5.1. Integration Requirements in British Nationality Law -- 5.1.1. Language Testing Prior to the Adoption of the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act -- 5.1.2. Towards More Demanding Ways of Testing Integration -- 5.2. The New Way of Integration Testing -- 5.3. Further Proposals to Restrict Access to British Citizenship -- 5.3.1. The Path to Citizenship -- 5.3.2. The Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Bill -- 5.4. Conclusions -- 6. The Citizenship Tests Compared -- 6.1. Qualifying the Tests -- 6.2. Qualifying the Dutch Integration Examination -- 6.2.1. Is the Dutch Citizenship Test Liberal? -- 6.2.2. Republican Elements in the Dutch Citizenship Test -- 6.2.3. Communitarian Elements in the Dutch Citizenship Test -- 6.3. Qualifying the German Einbürgerungstest -- 6.3.1. Can the Einbürgerungstest Be Qualified as Liberal? -- 6.3.2. Can the Einbürgerungstest Be Qualified as Republican? -- 6.3.3. Can the Einbürgerungstest Be Qualified as Communitarian? -- 6.4. Qualifying the British 'Life in the UK' Test -- 6.4.1. A Liberal Test? -- 6.4.2. Republican Elements -- 6.4.3. Communitarian Elements -- 6.5. Comparing the Tests -- 6.5.1. What Is Tested? -- 6.5.2. How Can the Tests Be Qualified? -- 7. The Quantitative Impact of the Citizenship Tests in the Netherlands, Germany and the UK -- 7.1. Lower Number of Naturalisations? -- 7.1.1. The Absolute Number of Naturalisations -- 7.1.2. The Relative Number of Naturalisations -- 7.1.3. The Relative Influence of the Tests on the Number of Naturalisations -- 7.1.3.1. The Netherlands -- 7.1.3.2. Germany -- 7.1.3.3. The UK -- 7.1.4. Other Ways of Acquiring Citizenship -- 7.1.5. Conclusions -- 7.2. Gender, Age, Nationality, Level of Education and Handicaps: Differences in Effects? -- 7.2.1. Gender -- 7.2.2. Age -- 7.2.3. Nationality -- 7.2.4. Level of Education.

7.2.5. Medical Impediments and Illiteracy -- 7.3. Conclusions -- 8. The Effects of Citizenship Testing: The Case of the Netherlands -- 8.1. Increased Uniformity and Less Inequality? -- 8.1.1. New Problems -- 8.1.2. New Inequalities -- 8.1.3. Conclusions -- 8.2. Improved Integration? -- 8.2.1. Immigrants for Whom the Test Constitutes a Redundant Requirement -- 8.2.2. Persons for Whom the Test Constitutes a Considerable Barrier -- 8.2.3. Test Content and Integration -- 8.2.4. Conclusions -- 8.3. Conclusions: Intended and Unintended Effects of the Formalised Language and Integration Requirement -- 9. Language and Integration Testing in Practice: The Case of Germany -- 9.1. A Uniform Application of the Naturalisation Requirements? -- 9.1.1. A Uniform Language Test? -- 9.1.2. A Uniform Knowledge of Society Test? -- 9.1.3. Conclusions -- 9.2. Improved Immigrant Integration? -- 9.2.1. Integrated, but no Proof -- 9.2.2. Immigrants for Whom the Language and Integration Requirements Constitute Barriers -- 9.2.3. Test Content and Integration -- 9.2.4. Conclusions -- 9.3. Other Possible Barriers to Citizenship -- 9.4. Conclusions: Intended and Unintended Effects of the Language and Knowledge of Society Tests -- 10. The 'Knowledge Requirements' in Practice: The UK -- 10.1. A More Consistent Application of the Language Requirement? -- 10.1.1. Hassle with ESOL -- 10.1.2. Differences Between the Two Routes: Costs and Time -- 10.1.3. Conclusions -- 10.2. An Improved Immigrant Integration and Increased Community Cohesion? -- 10.2.1. The Test Route versus the Course Route -- 10.2.2. The Value of What is Tested -- 10.2.3. The New Requirements as Barriers -- 10.2.4. Conclusions -- 10.3. Other Barriers to Citizenship.

10.4. Conclusions: Intended and Unintended Effects of the Knowledge Requirements -- 11. Conclusions -- 11.1. Why Have Tests been Introduced? -- 11.1.1. Changing Ideas on Immigrant Integration -- 11.1.2. The Process of Path Dependency -- 11.1.3. Equal Treatment as a Justification for Raising the Requirements -- 11.1.4. The Influence of EU Law and of Policies Applied in Other EU Member States -- 11.1.5. Reducing the Number of Naturalisations -- 11.1.6. The Political System -- 11.1.7. Conclusions on Convergence -- 11.2. The Effects of Citizenship Testing: Have the Goals Been Reached? -- 11.2.1. Do the Tests Assess What They Are Meant to Assess? -- 11.2.2. An Improved Integration? -- 11.3. Can the Practice of Citizenship Testing be Justified from the Liberal, Republican or Communitarian Perspectives? -- Bibliography -- Annex I Methodological Justification of Qualitative Research and Overview of Interviewed Immigrants and Stakeholders -- Annex II Questionnaire for the Research into the Effects of the Requirement 'to have Sufficient Knowledge of Language and Life in the UK' as a Condition for British Citizenship -- Index.