Language Typology and Historical Contingency -- Editorial page -- Title page -- LCC data -- Table of contents -- Preface -- Part I. Structures and typologies -- Discourse semantics and the form of the verb predicate in Karachay-Balkar -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Methodological notes -- 3. Summary of Karachay-Balkar verb morphology -- 4. Discourse data -- 5. Discourse functions of clauses and the frequency of predicate forms -- 6. Major predicate forms in narrative clauses -- 6.1 The use of finite forms -- 6.2 The use of the consecutive converb in -(I)p -- 7. A hypothesis on the choice between the major predicate forms -- 8. Causal-temporal relation and the choice of predicate form -- 8.1 Dynamic scenario -- 8.2 Natural sequence -- 8.3 Plain temporal sequence -- 9. Systematicity of the finite versus nonfinite choice: Experimental verification -- 9.1 Method and data -- 9.2 Results -- 9.3 Discussion -- 10. Minor predicate forms used in narrative clauses -- 10.1 Parallel converb in -A/-j -- 10.2 Perfect masdar + locative -- 10.3 Perfect masdar + zamanda -- 10.4 Perfect masdar + ablative. -- 10.5 Perfect masdar +suffix −lAj -- 10.6 Conditional -- 10.7 Past -- 10.8 Particle da 'and' -- 11. Predicate forms used in descriptive clauses -- 11.1 Nominal/adverb -- 11.2 Nominal/adverb + edi -- 11.3 bar 'existent, there is' -- 11.4 bar/zoq edi 'there was/there was not' -- 11.5 bolʁan 'was' -- 11.6 bola edi 'was' -- 11.7 Perfect -- 11.8 Parallel converb -- 12. Conclusions -- Abbreviations -- References -- Typology and channel of communication -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Locus of marking: Dependent-marking and head-marking -- 3. Grammatical relations: Agreement, case-marking, and alignment -- 4. Framing: Verb-framed and satellite-framed -- 5. Subject or topic prominence -- 6. Reference tracking -- 7. Simultaneous morphology -- 8. Conclution -- References.

Appendix: Selected list of books on linguistics of sign languages -- Marking versus indexing -- 1. Introduction: The Nichols marking-locus typology -- 1.1 Domain of typology -- 1.2 Phrase-level application -- 2. Marking versus indexing -- 2.1 Indexing as an orthogonal dimension in phrasal relations -- 2.2 Initial orienting example -- 2.3 Information in modified NP constructions -- 2.4 Zero indexing: A Kayardild example -- 2.5 Double indexing: A Beja example -- 3. Indexing and marking: A more systematic typology -- 3.1 Indexing in dependent-marking structures -- 3.1.1 DM, DI -- 3.1.2 DM, HI -- 3.2 Indexing in head-marking structures -- 3.2.1 HM, ØI -- 3.2.2 HM, 2I -- 3.2.3 HM, HI -- 3.2.4 Summary -- 3.3 Indexing in double-marking structures -- 3.3.1 Double marking: ØI on both elements -- 3.3.2 Double marking: DI on head, ØI on dependent -- 3.3.3 Double-marking: DI on both head and dependent -- 3.3.4 Double marking: 2I on head, ØI on dependent -- 3.3.5 Double marking: 2I on head, DI on dependent -- 3.3.6 Double marking, 2I on head, HI on dependent -- 4. Conclusions -- Abbreviations -- References -- Head-marking languages and linguistic theory -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Some challenges posed by head-marked syntax -- 3. Generative approaches -- 4. The Role and Reference Grammar approach -- 5. The layered structure of the clause and the layered structure of the word -- 6. Conclusion -- References -- Lessons of variability in clause coordination -- 1. Difficulties in the description of variation in coordinating constructions -- 2. Examples of clausal coordination in five languages -- 2.1 Bezhta -- 2.2 Chamalal -- 2.3 Khvarshi -- 2.4 Avar -- 2.5 Tabassaran -- 2.6 Conclusion -- 3. Strategies and principles -- 3.1 Strategies for forming coordinating constructions -- 3.1.1 Coding of the dependent clause -- 3.1.2 Linear order of clauses.

3.1.3 Coding the target of the anaphoric reduction -- 3.2 Principles of forming coordinating constructions -- 3.2.1 Identification of NPs that are connected by an anaphoric relation -- 3.2.2 Syntactic characteristics of basic sentence alignment -- 3.2.3 Syntactic positions of coreferential NPs -- 3.2.4 The linear sequence of main and dependent clauses under syntactic subordination -- 4. Variation in coordinating constructions in terms of strategies and principles -- 4.1 Bezhta -- 4.2 Chamalal -- 4.3 Khvarshi -- 4.4 Avar -- 4.5 Tabassaran -- 5. Conclusion -- 5.1 Linguistic diversity -- 5.2 The method of multifactor second-order calculus -- 5.3 The non-specific nature of principles and strategies -- 5.4 Motivation of principles -- 5.5 The motivation of strategies -- 5.6 The typology of related languages -- 5.7 Coordinating constructions in historical perspective -- References -- Noun classes grow on trees -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Background on noun classification in Tsez -- 3. Approaches to noun classification in Tsez -- 4. The current project -- 4.1 Decision-tree modeling -- 4.2 Testing -- 4.3 Results -- 5. Conclusions -- References -- Affecting valence in Khumi -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Basic morphosyntax -- 2.1 Nominal marking -- 2.2 Verbal participant coding -- 3. Prefixal valence-affecting morphology -- 4. Suffixal valence-affecting morphology -- 4.1 The benefactive/malefactive applicative -pë1 -- 4.2 Causative/applicative -hay3 -- 5. Summary and some observations on development -- References -- Capturing diversity in language acquisition research -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Variation and language acquisition -- 3. The data scarcity problem -- 4. Traditional approaches to sampling -- 5. An alternative: Clustered Sampling -- 6. An example: A clustered sample capturing complexity variation -- 7. Discussion -- 8. Conclusions -- References.

Part II. Distributions in time and space -- Who inherits what, when? -- 1. Areality and contact -- 2. Kinds of contact events -- 3. Pama-Nyungan languages -- 4. Australian phonological norms -- 5. (North)(east)ern Australia -- 6. A pre-Pama-Nyungan history for Cape York -- 7. Conclusions -- Abbreviations -- References -- Appendix 1. Number of contrastive lateral phonemes in Australian phonologies, compared with other regions in the world -- Polysynthesis in the Arctic/Sub-Arctic -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Polysynthesis as a one-way road? -- 3. Symptoms of old versus new polysynthesis -- 4. Application to other regions -- 5. How old is polysynthesis in the Amur-Sakhalin-Hokkaido region? -- Abbreviations -- References -- A (micro-)accretion zone in a remnant zone? -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Lower Fungom: A linguistic overview -- 3. Lower Fungom as a (micro-)accretion zone -- 4. Lower Fungom and accretion-zone dynamics -- 5. Linguistic diversity in space and time and language documentation -- References -- A history of Iroquoian gender marking -- 1. Introduction -- 2. The North Iroquoian genders -- 3. Chafe's reconstruction -- 4. Problems with Chafe's reconstruction -- 5. An alternative proposal -- 6. Some oddities of Tuscarora -- 7. Conclusion -- References -- The satem shift, Armenian siseṙn, and the early Indo-European of the Balkans -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Palato-velars and the centum-satem line -- 2.1 Chickpeas -- 2.2 Grass peas -- 3. Conclusion -- References -- Penultimate lengthening in Bantu -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Bantu penultimate lengthening: An overview -- 3. Discussion -- 4. Antepenultimate and pre-antepenultimate shortening -- 5. Conclusion -- References -- Appendices -- Appendix 1. Languages with PL that have lost the PB *V/VV contrast -- Appendix 2. Languages without PL that have lost the PB *V/VV contrast.

Appendix 3. Languages with positionally restricted vowel length -- Culture and the spread of Slavic -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Slavic Urheimat -- 3. Slavic Urheimat: II -- 4. Slavic Demic dislocation: I and II -- 5. Slavic Demic dislocation: III -- 6. Slavic culture in the Danube valley -- 7. Issues in language spread: Ethnogenesis -- 8. Issues in language spread: Commentary -- 8.1 Multiethnicity -- 8.2 Sociolinguistics -- 8.3 Demic movement -- 8.4 Prehistory -- 8.5 Ethnos: Structure and praxis -- 9. Summary -- References -- The syntax and pragmatics of Tungusic revisited -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Syntax and pragmatics in Tungusic, revisited -- 3. Clause combining -- 3.1 Parataxis -- 3.2 Coordinating particles and conjunctions -- 3.3 Evenki under Russian influence -- 4. Subordination -- 4.1 Converbs and subordination -- 4.2 Narrative structure and converbs -- 4.3 Contact and subordination: The impact of Russian -- 5. Language contact, borrowability, and shift -- 5.1 Coordination and conjunctions -- 5.2 Converbs -- 6. Conclusion: Clause combining, contact, and shift -- References -- Some observations on typological features of hunter-gatherer languages -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Method of typological comparison -- 3. Typological peculiarities -- 3.1 Order of meaningful elements -- 3.2 Phonology -- 3.3 Lexicon -- 4. Conclusion and prospects -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Typologizing phonetic precursors to sound change -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Phonetic precursors defined -- 3. Quantifying phonetic precursor robustness -- 4. Toward a typology of phonetic precursor robustness -- 5. Conclusions -- References -- Distributional biases in language families -- 1. Introduction -- 2. The Family Bias Method: The basic ideas -- 3. Illustrations of the method -- 3.1 A Scenario A example: A-before-P order.

3.2 A Scenario B example: Coding of property concepts in predicate position.