Front Cover -- Molecular Sensors and Nanodevices -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- About the Authors -- Preface -- Acknowledgement -- 1 Introduction to Molecular Sensors -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Principles of Molecular Sensors -- 1.2.1 Definition of Molecular Sensors -- Capture and Recognition -- Transduction -- Measurement and Analysis -- 1.2.2 Applications of Molecular Sensors -- 1.2.3 Model of a Molecular Sensor -- Capture and Recognition -- Transduction -- Measurement and Analysis -- 1.2.4 Example of Molecular Sensor 1: Immunosensor Based on Field Effect Transistor -- Capture and Recognition Elements -- Transducer -- Measurement and Analysis -- 1.2.5 Example of Molecular Sensor 2: Animal Olfactory System -- 1.3 Capture and Recognition Elements in Molecular Sensors -- 1.3.1 Antibody-Antigen Binding -- Antibody Overview -- Antibody-Antigen Binding -- Immunoassays -- 1.3.2 DNA as a Recognition Element -- Discovery of DNA -- DNA Structure and Characteristics -- RNA Function -- DNA Hybridization -- Oligonucleotides -- Nucleic Acid Sensors -- 1.3.3 Aptamers -- Aptamer Selection Process -- Example Process: Bead Based Selection -- 1.4 Transduction Mechanisms -- 1.4.1 Electrical Transduction -- Optical Transduction -- Mechanical Transduction -- 1.4.2 Sensitivity of a Transducer -- Responsivity -- Noise in a Sensing System -- Sensitivity -- Thermal Noise -- Example 1 -- Example 2 -- Example 3 -- 1.5 Performance of Molecular Sensors -- 1.6 Animals as Molecular Sensors -- 1.6.1 Sensitivity of Animal Olfactory Systems -- Canine Olfactory System -- Insect Olfactory System -- 1.6.2 Applications of Animal Molecular Sensors -- Explosive Detection -- Canine Detection of Explosives -- Pouched Rats for the Detection of Landmines -- Honeybees for the Detection of Landmines -- Disease Detection -- Canines for Cancer Detection.

Pouched Rats for the Detection of Tuberculosis -- Other Applications -- Canine Detection of Pirated DVDs -- Canine Detection of Bed Bugs -- 1.6.3 Discussion on Animals as Molecular Sensors -- 1.7 Conclusion -- Problems -- P1.1 Molecular Sensor -- P1.2 Molecular Sensor -- P1.3 Recognition Element -- P1.4 Basics of Molecular Sensing -- P1.5 Antibodies -- P1.6 Immunosensing -- P1.7 DNA Biosensor -- P1.8 DNA Basics -- P1.9 DNA Basics -- P1.10 DNA Basics -- P1.11 DNA Basics -- P1.12 Thermal Noise -- P1.13 Thermal Noise, Responsivity and Sensitivity -- P1.14 Sensitivity of a Force Sensor -- P1.15 Animals as Molecular Sensors -- References -- Further Reading -- 2 Fundamentals of Nano/Microfabrication and Effect of Scaling -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Scaling in Molecular Sensors -- 2.3 Microfabrication Basics -- 2.3.1 Silicon as a Material for Microfabrication -- Silicon Crystal Structure -- 2.3.2 Photolithography -- Process of Photolithography -- Resolution of Photolithography -- Contact and Proximity Exposure -- Projection Exposure -- 2.3.3 Deposition -- Spin Coating -- Thermal Oxidation -- Evaporation -- E-beam Evaporation -- Resistive Heat (Joule Heat) Evaporation -- Problems Associated with Evaporation -- Sputtering -- Chemical Vapor Deposition -- Polysilicon -- Amorphous silicon -- Silicon Dioxide -- Silicon Nitride -- Electroplating -- Chemical Reaction -- Fabrication of Electroplated Microstructures -- 2.3.4 Etching -- Wet Etching -- Selectivity -- Isotropic Wet Etching -- Silicon Anisotropic Wet Etching -- Dry Etching -- Deep Reactive-Ion Etching (DRIE) -- 2.3.5 Lift Off -- Sacrificial Layer -- Final Layer -- 2.3.6 Doping -- Thermal Diffusion -- Ion Implantation -- 2.4 Micro-electro-mechanical Systems (MEMS) -- 2.4.1 Bulk Micromachining -- Piezoresistivity -- Pressure Sensor -- 2.4.2 Surface Micromachining -- Surface Micromachining.

Electrostatic Actuators -- Pull-in Limit -- Nonlinear Effect -- Examples of Micro Electrostatic Actuators -- 2.5 Soft Lithography -- 2.5.1 Microcontact Printing -- Stamp Preparation -- Inking -- Stamping -- Materials -- 2.5.2 Soft Lithography-Based Microfabrication -- Replica Molding -- Microtransfer Molding -- Embossing Techniques -- Injection Molding -- 2.5.3 Immobilization and Patterning Techniques for Biomolecules -- Immobilization Techniques -- Adsorption -- Thiol-Gold Bonding -- Avidin-Biotin Interactions -- Other Materials for Surface Treatment -- Inkjet Printing -- Photolithography and Direct Photochemistry -- Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) for Biomolecule Patterning -- 2.6 "Top Down "and "Bottom Up" Approaches -- 2.7 Conclusion -- Problems -- P2.1 Effect of Scaling -- P2.2 Crystal Planes and Miller Index -- P2.3 Microfabrication -- P2.4 Photolithography -- P2.5 Silicon Micromachining -- P2.6 Patterning of Metal Layers -- P2.7 Electroplating -- P2.8 Wet Anisotropic Etching of Silicon -- P2.9 Microelectromechanical Systems -- P2.10 Micro Electrostatic Actuators -- P2.11 Micro Electrostatic Actuators -- P2.12 Scaling and Micro Actuators -- P2.13 Soft Lithography -- P2.14 Soft Lithography -- P2.15 Top Down and Bottom Up Fabrication -- References -- Further Reading -- 3 Microfluidics and Micro Total Analytical Systems -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Microfluidics Fundamentals -- 3.2.1 Diffusion -- 3.2.2 Laminar Flow and the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation -- Viscosity -- Laminar Flow in a Pipe -- Hagen-Poiseuille Equation -- 3.2.3 Reynolds Number and Scaling Law -- Navier-Stokes Equations -- Reynolds Number -- 3.3 Microfluidics for Molecular Sensors -- 3.3.1 Microfluidic Device Basics -- Fabrication of Microfluidic Devices -- Pumping -- Mixing in Microchannels -- Diffusion and Scale Effect -- Mixing in Microchannels.

3.3.2 Microfluidic Cell Separation and Detection -- Flow Cytometry -- Principles -- Commercially Available Systems -- Microfluidic Flow Cytometry -- Affinity Mediated Separation -- Principle -- Applications -- Magnetic Cell Separation -- Principle -- Application -- Electrophoresis -- Principle -- Applications -- Cell Separation Utilizing Mechanical Properties -- Acoustic Separation -- Separation Based on Stiffness -- Separation Based on Size -- 3.3.3 Microfluidic Devices for DNA Analysis -- Microfluidic Devices for DNA Amplification -- Principles -- Applications -- Implementation -- The Fluidigm BioMark System -- DNA Microarray -- Working Principle -- Implementation -- Applications -- Microfluidic Devices for DNA Separation -- Microfluidic Electrophoresis -- Commercial Products -- DNA Sequencing -- Sanger Sequencing -- Microfluidic Systems for Sanger Sequencing -- Nanopore Based Sequencing -- Problems -- P3.1 Diffusion -- P3.2 Spindle Viscometer -- P3.3 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation -- P3.4 Reynolds Number -- P3.5 Reynolds Number -- P3.6 Laminar Flow -- P3.7 Laminar Flow -- P3.8 Microfluidic Pump -- P3.9 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation -- P3.10 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation -- P3.11 Immunomagnetic Separation -- P3.12 Circulating Tumor Cells -- P3.13 Gel Electrophoresis -- P3.14 PCR -- P3.15 PCR -- References -- Further Reading -- 4 Electrical Transducers -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Electrochemical Sensors -- 4.2.1 Principles of Electrochemical Measurements -- Redox Reaction -- Electrochemical Cell -- The Electrode Potential -- Reference Electrode -- The Nernst Equation -- The electrical double layer -- 4.2.2 Applications of Electrochemical Sensors -- Potentiometric Sensors -- Voltammetric and Amperometric Sensors -- Conductometric Sensors -- Capacitive Sensors -- Glucose Sensors -- 4.3 FET-Based Molecular Sensors -- 4.3.1 Semiconductor Basics.

Electrical Conductivity -- Charge Carriers and Mobility -- Electrons and Holes -- Doping -- p-Type Doping -- n-Type Doping -- p-n Junction -- p-n Diode -- MOSFET -- Flat Band -- Accumulation -- Depletion -- Inversion -- 4.3.2 Silicon FET-Based Molecular Sensors -- Ion Selective FET Sensors -- Fabrication and Implementation -- Silicon FET Sensors for Biosensing Applications -- 4.3.3 Organic Transistor-Based Sensors -- 4.3.4 Nanowire Based FET Sensors -- Silicon Nanowire-Based FET Sensor -- Polymer Nanowire FET Sensors -- 4.4 Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene-Based Sensors -- 4.4.1 CNT-Based Molecular Sensors -- Carbon Nanotubes -- Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes -- Carbon Nanotube-Based Molecular Sensors -- 4.4.2 Graphene-Based Molecular Sensors -- Properties of Graphene -- Synthesis of Graphene -- Graphene-Based Gas Sensors -- Graphene for Glucose Sensing -- Graphene-Based DNA Sensing -- 4.5 Conclusion -- Problems -- P4.1 Potential of Electrodes -- P4.2 pH Meter -- P4.3 Glucose Sensor -- P4.4 Glucose Sensor -- P4.5 Electrochemical Sensors -- P4.6 Glucose Sensor -- P4.7 Semiconductor Basics -- P4.8 Charge Carriers, Conductivity, Fermi level -- P4.9 Charge Carriers, Conductivity, Fermi level -- P4.10 Temperature Dependence -- P4.11 FET-Based Molecular Sensors -- P4.12 Nanomaterials -- P4.13 Carbon Nanotubes -- P4.14 Graphene-Based Molecular Sensors -- References -- Further Reading -- 5 Optical Transducers -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Basic EM Theory -- 5.2.1 Maxwell's Equations -- 5.2.2 Wave Equation -- 5.2.3 Phasor Notation -- 5.2.4 Interference -- 5.2.5 Polarization, Incidence and Reflection of light -- TM and TE Modes -- Snell's Law, Total Internal Reflection -- Fresnel Equations -- Brewster's Angle -- 5.2.6 Evanescent Field -- 5.3 Waveguide-Based Molecular Sensors -- 5.3.1 Introduction -- 5.3.2 Principles of Wave Propagation in Waveguide -- Waveguide Modes.

Light Coupling.