Critical Metals Handbook -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Acknowledgements -- 1. Metal resources, use and criticality -- The geology and technology of metals -- Key concepts -- Definitions and terminology -- Will we run out of minerals? -- Geological assessment -- Considerations of supply and demand -- Recycling and reuse of metals -- The concept of criticality -- Assessments of criticality -- Improving criticality assessment -- Implications of criticality for corporate and governmental policy -- Outlining this book -- Acknowledgements -- Note -- References -- 2. The mining industry and the supply of critical minerals -- Suppliers of minerals - miners and explorers -- Industry dynamics -- Constraints on mineral supply response -- Natural constraints -- Economic constraints -- Institutional constraints -- Critical minerals and the role of China -- Policy issues -- Notes -- References -- 3. Recycling of (critical) metals -- Rationale and benefits -- The urban mine -- Recycling benefits -- Status and challenges of recycling critical metals -- The metals life cycle -- Waste and resource legislation -- The recycling value chain -- Recycling challenges -- The seven conditions for effective recycling -- Recycling technologies -- Collection and pre-processing -- Metallurgical recovery -- Status of recycling of the EU critical metals -- The significance of life-cycle structures -- Case study 1: Industrial PGM applications -- Case study 2: Automotive PGM applications -- Case study 3: Electronic PGM applications -- Global flows of old products -- Differences in recycling rates and pathways for improvement -- Conclusion and the way forward -- Innovation needs -- Resource security as a societal driver for recycling -- Mining and recycling as complementary systems -- Conclusions -- Notes -- References -- 4. Antimony -- Introduction.

Definitions and characteristics -- Abundance in the Earth -- Mineralogy -- Major deposit classes -- Gold-antimony (epithermal) deposits -- Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein and carbonate replacement deposits -- Reduced magmatic gold systems -- Extraction methods and processing -- Mining -- Ore processing, beneficiation and conversion to metal -- Specifications -- Uses -- Antimony trioxide -- Sodium antimonate -- Other non-metallurgical uses -- Antimony metal -- Recycling -- Substitution -- Resources and reserves -- Production -- Projects under development -- World trade -- Prices -- Environmental aspects -- Outlook -- References -- 5. Beryllium -- Introduction -- Properties of beryllium -- Distribution and abundance in the Earth's crust -- Uses of beryllium -- Alloys containing less than 2% beryllium, especially copper-beryllium -- Pure beryllium metal and alloys containing over 60% beryllium -- Beryllia (BeO) ceramics -- World production -- World trade -- World resources -- Mineralogy of beryllium -- Beryllium deposits -- Pegmatite deposits -- Hydrothermal deposits -- Mining and processing of beryllium -- Beryl ores -- Bertrandite ores -- Processing of beryl and bertrandite to beryllium hydroxide -- Production of metal and alloys from beryllium hydroxide -- Production of beryllium oxide from beryllium hydroxide -- Recycling -- Substitution -- Environmental aspects -- Prices -- Outlook -- Note -- References -- 6. Cobalt -- Introduction -- Physical and chemical properties -- Distribution and abundance in the Earth -- Mineralogy -- Deposit types -- Hydrothermal deposits -- Magmatic deposits -- Laterites -- Manganese nodules and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the seafloor -- Extraction, processing and refining -- Cobalt from nickel sulfide ores -- Cobalt from nickel laterite ores -- Cobalt from copper-cobalt ores in DRC and Zambia.

Other sources of cobalt -- World production and trade -- Resources and reserves -- Uses -- Recycling -- Substitution -- Environmental issues -- Prices -- Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- Notes -- References -- 7. Gallium -- Introduction -- Physical and chemical properties -- Mineralogy and distribution -- Sources of gallium -- Bauxite -- Sphalerite (ZnS) -- Other geological settings -- Recovery methods and refining -- Primary recovery -- Secondary recovery -- Refining and purification -- Gallium in GaAs semiconductors -- Specifications and uses -- Gallium metal -- Gallium antimonide -- Gallium arsenide -- Gallium chemicals -- Gallium nitride -- Gallium phosphide -- Photovoltaics -- Substitution -- Environmental aspects -- World resources and production -- Production in 2010 -- Future supplies -- World trade -- Prices -- Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 8. Germanium -- Introduction -- Physical and chemical properties -- Distribution and abundance in the Earth -- Mineralogy -- Deposit types -- Accumulation of germanium in sulfide deposits -- Enrichment of germanium in lignite and coal -- Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation -- Extraction -- Processing -- Specifications -- Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4 -- Germanium dioxide, GeO2 -- First reduction metal -- Production of zone-refined metal ('intrinsic' metal) -- Single crystals -- Uses -- Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency -- Substitution -- Environmental aspects of the life cycle of germanium and its products -- Resources and reserves -- Production -- Future supplies -- World trade -- Prices -- Outlook -- Supply challenges -- Demand drivers -- Supply and demand scenario -- Acknowledgments -- Notes -- References -- 9. Indium -- Introduction -- Physical and chemical properties -- Abundance in the Earth's crust -- Mineralogy -- Major deposit classes.

Base-metal sulfide deposits -- Polymetallic vein-type deposits -- Base-metal-rich tin-tungsten and skarn deposits -- Base-metal-rich epithermal deposits -- Extraction methods and processing -- Mining -- Processing, beneficiation and conversion to metal -- Indium production from copper ores -- Indium production from tin ores -- Indium recovery from secondary sources -- Specifications and uses -- Indium-tin oxide (ITO) -- Alloys and solders -- Semiconductors -- Others -- Resources and reserves -- Production -- Production from residues and scrap -- Projects under development -- Abandoned production -- World trade -- Prices -- Recycling and substitution -- Environmental aspects -- Outlook -- References -- 10. Lithium -- Introduction -- Properties and abundance in the Earth -- Mineralogy and deposit types -- Pegmatites -- Continental brines -- Geothermal brines -- Oilfield brines -- Hectorite -- Jadarite -- Extraction methods and processing -- Specification and uses -- Recycling -- Substitution -- Environmental factors -- World resources and production -- Reserves and resources -- Production -- Current producers -- Production costs -- Future supplies -- Pegmatite-based projects -- Continental brines -- Geothermal brine -- Oilfield brine -- Hectorite -- Jadarite -- World trade -- Prices -- Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- Notes -- References -- 11. Magnesium -- Introduction -- Physical and chemical properties -- Distribution and abundance in the Earth -- Mineralogy -- Deposit types -- Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation -- Nineteenth-century magnesium production processes -- Commercial magnesium production processes of the twentieth century -- Specifications and uses -- Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency -- Substitution -- Environmental aspects -- Non-greenhouse-gas regulations - electrolytic magnesium production.

Non-greenhouse-gas regulations - thermal magnesium -- Greenhouse-gas emission studies -- World resources and production -- Future supplies -- World trade -- Prices -- Outlook -- References -- 12. Platinum-group metals -- Introduction -- Properties and abundance in the Earth -- Mineralogy -- Major deposit classes -- PGM -dominant deposits -- Nickel-copper-dominant deposits -- Other deposit types -- Extraction and processing -- Extraction methods -- Processing -- Specifications and uses -- Uses of platinum, palladium and rhodium -- Uses of ruthenium, iridium and osmium -- Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency -- Substitution -- Environmental issues -- World resources and production -- Resources and reserves -- Production -- World trade -- Prices -- Outlook -- Acknowledgements -- Note -- References -- 13. Rare earth elements -- Introduction -- Physical and chemical properties -- Distribution and abundance in the Earth's crust -- Mineralogy -- Deposit types -- Carbonatite-related REE deposits -- Alkaline igneous rocks -- Other hydrothermal veins -- Iron-oxide-apatite deposits, including iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits -- Placer deposits (mineral sands) -- Ion adsorption deposits -- Seafloor deposits -- By-products, co-products and waste products -- Extraction methods, processing and beneficiation -- Mining -- Beneficiation -- Extraction and separation of the REE -- Specifications and uses -- Recycling, re-use and resource efficiency -- Substitution -- Environmental aspects -- World resources and production -- Future supplies -- World trade -- Prices -- Outlook -- Note -- References -- 14. Rhenium -- Introduction -- Physical and chemical properties -- Distribution and abundance -- Mineralogy -- Deposit types -- Porphyry deposits -- Vein deposits -- Sediment-hosted copper deposits -- Uranium deposits.

Magmatic nickel-copper-platinum-group element (PGE) deposits.