Cover -- Content 5 -- List of Abbreviations 9 -- List of Arabic Terms 11 -- Introduction 13 -- Part 1 The Right of Minorities to Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion 23 -- 1. The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion 25 -- 1.1 International Instruments for the Protection of Freedom of Religion or Belief 28 -- 1.1.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 30 -- 1.1.2 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 32 -- 1.1.3 The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 37 -- 1.1.4 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief 1981 38 -- 1.2 The Scope of Freedom of Religion or Belief 39 -- 1.2.1 Defining Religion 41 -- 1.2.2 The Right to Have a Religion 45 -- 1.2.3 The Right to Manifest Religion or Belief 48 -- 1.2.4 Freedom to Change Religion or Belief 52 -- 1.2.5 Non-derogable Right 59 -- 1.3 Intersection of Freedom of Religion or Belief with Freedom of Expression 61 -- 1.3.1 Freedom of Expression 62 -- 1.3.2 The Balance between Freedom of Religion or Belief and Freedom of Expression 63 -- 2. Religious Minorities 65 -- 2.1 Defining Minority 67 -- 2.2 The Rights of Religious Minorities in the UN System 70 -- 2.2.1 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 70 -- 2.2.2 The Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities 73 -- 2.3 Prohibition of Discrimination against Religious Minorities 77 -- 2.4 Integration of Religious Minorities 83 -- 3. Conclusion 93 -- Part 2 Limits of Muslims' Freedom of Religion in the West 97 -- 1. Muslims in France and the United States 99 -- 1.1 Muslims in France 99 -- 1.2 Muslims in the United States of America 102 -- 2. The Western Perception of Islam and Islamophobia 103 -- 3. Limits on Freedom of Religion of Muslims in the West 111.

3.1 Religious Symbols Controversy in France 112 -- 3.1.1 The Law on Religious Symbols in France 112 -- 3.1.2 Religious Symbols and The European Court of Human Rights 117 -- 3.1.3 Reasons for Banning the Headscarf 120 -- 3.1.4 Arguments Against Banning the Headscarf 125 -- 3.1.5 Conclusion 141 -- 3.2 The USA Counter Terrorism Measures and their Effect on Muslims 143 -- 3.2.1 Religious Profiling of Muslims in the Context of Countering Terrorism by the USA 145 -- 3.2.2 Anti-terror Measures and Religious Profiling 149 -- 3.2.3 Preventive Detentions and Religious Discrimination in Prison Setting 166 -- 3.3 Religious Vilification against Muslims in the West 180 -- 3.3.1 Religious Vilification' against Muslims and Freedom of Expression 188 -- 3.3.2 The Danish Cartoon Controversy 189 -- 3.3.3 Balance between Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Religion 197 -- 4. Conclusion 203 -- Part 3 Limits of Freedom of Religion or Belief in Arab States 209 -- 1. Historical Background of the Arab States 211 -- 1.1 Diversity and Unity of the Arab State 212 -- 1.2 The Tension between the West and Muslims in Arab States 214 -- 1.2.1 Supporting the Authoritarian Regimes 217 -- 1.2.2 Foreign Policies of the United States of America in the Region 219 -- 1.3 Religious Demography and Legal Framework in Egypt and Saudi Arabia 223 -- 2. Freedom of Religion or Belief of Religious Minorities in Islam and the Refutation of the Misconceived Allegations Associated with this Right 229 -- 2.1 Difference between Islam and Islamic law (Shar'ia) 229 -- 2.1.1 Primary Sources of Shari'a 231 -- 2.1.2 Secondary Sources of Shari'a 234 -- 2.2 Islam and the Welfare of Humanity 238 -- 2.3 Islam is a Balance between Rights and Duties 241 -- 2.4 Problem areas with the Right to Freedom of Religion in Saudi Arabia and Egypt 246 -- 2.4.1 Apostasy: Definition and Parameter 246.

2.4.2 The rights of Religious Minorities in Egypt and Saudi Arabia 268 -- 2.4.3 Lack of Democracy in Saudi Arabia and Egypt 294 -- 3. Conclusion 309 -- Concluding Remarks Challenges to Freedom of Religion or Belief 313 -- Bibliography 323.