Methods of Measuring Environmental Parameters -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- About the Book -- About the Author -- Introduction -- Some Principal Definitions -- Part I Climatic Factors -- 1 Pressure -- 1.1 Definition of Pressure -- 1.2 Atmospheric Pressure -- 1.3 Physiological Effects of Decreased Air Pressure on Human Organism -- 1.4 Physiological Effects of Altitude on Animals -- 1.5 Effects of Altitude on Plants -- 1.6 Variation of Pressure with Depth -- 1.7 Physiological Effects of Increased Pressure on Human Organism -- 1.8 Physiological Effects of Pressure on Diving Animals -- References -- 2 Measurement of Pressure -- 2.1 Manometers -- 2.2 Barometers -- 2.3 Digital Barometric Pressure Sensor -- 2.4 Vibrating Wire Sensor -- 2.5 Capacitive Pressure Sensor -- 2.6 Measurement of Pressure at Depth -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Electronic References -- Practical Exercise 1. Analysis of Observed Data: Theory of Errors -- 1 Approximation of Data -- 1.1 Rules for Dealing with Significant Numbers -- 1.2 The Precision of the Measurement During Multiplication or Division -- 1.3 The Precision of the Measurement During Addition or Subtraction -- 1.4 The Precision of the Measurement During Raising to a Power or Extracting a Root -- 2 Theory of Errors -- 2.1 Types of Errors -- 2.2 Errors in Direct Measurements -- 2.3 Errors in Indirect Measurements -- References -- Electronic Reference -- 3 Wind -- 3.1 Definition of Wind -- 3.2 Forces That Create Wind -- 3.3 Parameters of Wind -- 3.4 Effect of Wind on Living Organisms -- Reference -- 4 Measurement of Wind Parameters -- 4.1 Cup Anemometer -- 4.2 Windmill Anemometer -- 4.3 Hot-Wire Anemometer -- 4.4 Sonic Anemometer -- 4.5 Remote Wind Sensing -- 4.5.1 Radiosonde -- 4.5.2 Radar -- 4.5.3 Sodar -- 4.5.4 Lidar -- 4.5.5 Doppler Effect.

4.5.6 Satellite and Rocket Remote Sensing -- 4.6 Measurement of Wind Direction -- 4.7 Cyclone Assessment -- Reference -- Practical Exercise 2. Modeling the Variation in Wind Speed -- 1 Modeling Variation in Wind Speed Near the Ground -- 2 Modeling the Variation in Wind Speed Above a Plant Canopy -- Questions and Problems -- Reference -- Further Reading -- Electronic References -- 5 Temperature -- 5.1 Definition of Temperature -- 5.2 Temperature Scales -- 5.3 Atmospheric Temperature -- 5.4 Soil Temperature -- 5.5 Temperature of Water Reservoirs -- 5.6 Heat Flux -- 5.7 Effect of Temperature on Living Organisms -- 5.7.1 Heat Production -- 5.7.2 Heat Transfer -- 6 Measurement of Temperature -- 6.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers -- 6.2 Bimetallic Thermometer -- 6.3 Resistance Thermometer -- 6.4 Thermocouples -- 6.5 Optical Pyrometry -- 6.6 Infrared Thermometers -- 6.7 Heat Flux Measurement -- 6.8 Method of Scintillometry -- References -- Practical Exercise 3. Modeling Vertical Changes in Air Temperature -- 1 Measurement of Temperature Above Uniform Surface -- Algebraic Solution -- Graphic Solution -- 2 Measurement of Sensible Heat Flux -- Questions and Problems -- Reference -- Further Reading -- Electronic References -- 7 Humidity -- 7.1 Definition of Humidity -- 7.2 Parameters of Humidity -- 7.3 Effect of Humidity on Living Organisms -- 7.3.1 Effect of Humidity on Human Organism -- 7.3.2 Effect of Humidity on Microorganisms -- 7.3.3 Effect of Humidity on Animals -- 7.3.4 Effect of Humidity on Plants -- 8 Measurement of Air Humidity -- 8.1 Hygrometers -- 8.2 Assmann Psychrometer -- 8.3 Hair Hygrometer -- 8.4 Capacitive Hygrometer -- 8.5 Condensation Hygrometer -- 8.6 Electrolytic Hygrometer -- 8.7 Radiation Absorption Hygrometer (Gas Analyzer) -- 8.8 An Open-Path System for Measuring Humidity -- 8.9 Remote Sensing Humidity.

Practical Exercise 4. Measuring Parameters of Humidity -- 1 Objectives -- 2 Materials Supplied -- 3 Principle of Operation -- 4 Experimental Procedure -- Questions and Problems -- Reference -- Further Reading -- Electronic Reference -- 9 Precipitation -- 9.1 Definitions -- 9.2 Mechanisms of Precipitation -- 9.3 Parameters of Precipitation -- 9.4 Acid Rain -- 9.5 Interception -- 9.6 General Characteristics of Isotopes -- 9.7 Stable Isotopes of Water -- 9.8 Isotopic Fractionation -- 9.9 Stable Isotopes in Precipitation Processes -- 9.10 Application of Stable Isotopes -- 9.11 Effect of Precipitation on Living Organisms -- 9.12 Snow -- 9.12.1 Parameters of Snow -- 9.12.2 Effect of Snow on Living Organisms -- 9.13 FOG -- 9.13.1 Parameters of Fog -- 9.13.2 Effect of Fog on Living Organisms -- References -- 10 Measurement of Precipitation -- 10.1 Measurement of Precipitation Parameters -- 10.1.1 Standard Rain Gauge -- 10.1.2 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge -- 10.1.3 Siphon Rain Gauge -- 10.1.4 Weighing Bucket Gauge -- 10.1.5 Optical Rain Gauge -- 10.1.6 Laser Precipitation Monitor -- 10.1.7 Acoustic Rain Gauge -- 10.2 Measurement of Acid Rain Pollution -- 10.2.1 pH-metry -- 10.2.2 Conductivity -- 10.2.3 Ion-Exchange Chromatography -- 10.3 Isotopes in Precipitation -- 10.3.1 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry -- 10.3.2 Diode Laser: Principle of Operation -- 10.3.3 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy -- 10.3.4 Modulated Techniques -- 10.3.5 Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy -- 10.4 Remote Sensing of Precipitation -- 10.4.1 Types of Remote Sensing Techniques -- 10.4.2 Radars -- 10.4.3 Satellites -- 10.4.4 Estimation and Analysis of Precipitation Parameters -- 10.5 Snow Measurement -- 10.5.1 Measurement of Snowfall -- 10.5.2 Snow Gauge -- 10.5.3 Ultrasonic Snow Depth Sensor -- 10.5.4 Laser Snow Depth Sensor -- 10.5.5 Remote Sensing of Snow Cover.

10.6 Fog-Water Measurement -- References -- Practical Exercise 5. Velocity of a Falling Raindrop -- 1 Balance of Forces -- 2 The Size and Shape of Raindrops -- 3 The Drag Coefficient -- 4 The Reynolds Number -- Question and Problems -- References -- Further Reading -- Electronic References -- 11 Solar Radiation -- 11.1 Si Radiometry and Photometry Units -- 11.2 The Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density -- 11.3 Parameters of Sun -- 11.4 Intensity of the Sun -- 11.5 Periodicity of Solar Activity -- 11.6 Spectral Composition of Solar Radiation -- 11.7 Atmospheric Radiation -- 11.8 Terrestrial Radiation -- 11.9 Effect of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation on Living Organisms -- 11.10 Effect of Solar Visible Radiation on Living Organisms -- References -- 12 Measurement of Solar Radiation -- 12.1 Classification of Radiometers -- 12.2 Measurement of Direct Solar Radiation-Pyrheliometer -- 12.3 Measurement of Global Radiation-Pyranometer -- 12.4 Measurement of Diffuse Radiation-Pyranometer with a Sun-Shading Ring -- 12.5 Measurement of Long-Wave Radiation-Pyrgeometer -- 12.6 Measurement of Albedo-Albedometer -- 12.7 Measurement of Total Radiation-a 4-COmponent Net Radiometer -- 12.8 Photometer -- 12.9 Photon Meter -- 12.10 Conversion of Light Environment Units -- Practical Exercise 6. Parameters of Optical Radiation -- 1 Parameters of Electromagnetic Radiation -- 2 The Inverse-Square Law -- 3 The Cosine Law -- 4 The Wiens Displacement Law -- 5 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law -- 6 The Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density -- 7 The Laboratory Exercise "The Inverse-Square Law" -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Electronic Reference -- 13 Eddy Covariance -- 13.1 Turbulence -- 13.2 Boundary Layer -- 13.3 Eddy Covariance -- 13.4 Turbulent Velocity Fluctuations -- 13.5 Vertical Momentum Flux -- 13.6 Sensible Heat Flux -- 13.7 Latent Heat Flux -- 13.8 Carbon Dioxide Flux.

References -- 14 Measurement of Eddy Covariance -- 14.1 Meteorological Towers -- 14.2 Gas Analyzers -- 14.3 Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy for Atmospheric Gases: EDDY Covariance Flux Measurements -- 14.4 Stable Isotopes of Carbon Dioxide -- 14.5 Quantum Cascade Laser Absorption Spectrometry -- 14.6 Eddy Covariance Measurement of Carbon Dioxide Isotopologues -- 14.7 Measurement of Eddy Accumulation -- 14.8 Interaction of Climatic Factors -- 14.9 Automatic Weather Stations -- Reference -- Practical Exercise 7. Eddy Covariance Measurement -- Questions and Problems -- Further Reading -- Electronic Reference -- Part II Atmospheric Factors -- 15 Atmosphere -- 15.1 Composition of the Atmosphere -- 15.2 Air Pollution -- 15.3 Air Quality -- Reference -- 16 Measurement of Ambient Air Quality -- 16.1 Measurement of NO2 -- 16.1.1 Chemiluminescence -- 16.1.2 The Automatic Cavity Attenuated Phase Shift NO2 Analyzer -- 16.1.3 Micro-Gas Analysis System for Measurement of NO2 -- 16.1.4 Measurement of NO2 in a Liquid Film/Droplet System -- 16.1.5 Electrochemical Sensor -- 16.1.6 Passive Diffusive Samplers -- 16.1.7 Thick Film Sensors -- 16.1.8 Open-Path Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer -- 16.2 Effect of Nitrogen Dioxide on Human Health -- 16.3 Measurement of SO2 -- 16.3.1 Fluorescence Spectroscopy -- 16.3.2 Micro-Gas Analyzers for Environmental Monitoring -- 16.4 Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on Human Health -- 16.5 Measurement of CO -- 16.5.1 Infrared Photometry -- 16.5.2 Open-Path Fourier Spectrometry -- 16.5.3 Effect of Carbon Monoxide on Human Health -- 16.6 Particulate Matter Sampling -- 16.7 Gravimetric Methods -- 16.7.1 High-Volume Samplers -- 16.7.2 Impaction Inlet -- 16.7.3 Cyclonic Inlet -- 16.7.4 Low-Volume Samplers -- 16.7.5 Dichotomous Sampler -- 16.8 Continuous Methods -- 16.8.1 Beta Attenuation Monitor.

16.8.2 Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance.