Meteorological Measurements and Instrumentation -- Contents -- Series Foreword -- Advancing Weather and Climate Science -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- Disclaimer -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 The instrumental age -- 1.2 Measurements and the climate record -- 1.3 Clouds and rainfall -- 1.4 Standardisation of air temperature measurements -- 1.5 Upper air measurements -- 1.5.1 Manned balloon ascents -- 1.5.2 Self-reporting upper air instruments -- 1.6 Scope and structure -- 2 Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation -- 2.1 Instruments and measurement systems -- 2.1.1 Instrument response characterisation -- 2.1.2 Measurement quality -- 2.2 Instrument response time -- 2.2.1 Response to a step change -- 2.2.2 Response to an oscillation -- 2.3 Deriving the standard error -- 2.3.1 Sample mean -- 2.3.2 Standard error -- 2.3.3 Quoting results -- 2.4 Calculations combining uncertainties -- 2.4.1 Sums and differences -- 2.4.2 Products and quotients -- 2.4.3 Uncertainties from functions -- 2.5 Calibration experiments -- 3 Electronics and Analogue Signal Processing -- 3.1 Voltage measurements -- 3.2 Signal conditioning -- 3.2.1 Operational amplifiers -- 3.2.2 Operational amplifier fundamentals -- 3.2.3 Signal amplification -- 3.2.4 Buffer amplifiers -- 3.2.5 Inverting amplifier -- 3.2.6 Line driving -- 3.2.7 Power supplies -- 3.3 Voltage signals -- 3.3.1 Electrometers -- 3.3.2 Microvolt amplifier -- 3.4 Current measurement -- 3.4.1 Current to voltage conversion -- 3.4.2 Photocurrent amplifier -- 3.4.3 Logarithmic measurements -- 3.4.4 Calibration currents -- 3.5 Resistance measurement -- 3.5.1 Thermistor resistance measurement -- 3.5.2 Resistance bridge methods -- 3.6 Oscillatory signals -- 3.6.1 Oscillators -- 3.6.2 Phase-locked loops -- 3.6.3 Frequency to voltage conversion -- 3.7 Physical implementation.

4 Data Acquisition Systems and Initial Data Analysis -- 4.1 Data acquisition -- 4.1.1 Count data -- 4.1.2 Frequency data -- 4.1.3 Interval data -- 4.1.4 Voltage data -- 4.1.5 Sampling -- 4.1.6 Time synchronisation -- 4.2 Custom data logging systems -- 4.2.1 Data acquisition cards -- 4.2.2 Microcontroller systems -- 4.2.3 Automatic Weather Stations -- 4.3 Management of data files -- 4.3.1 Data logger programming -- 4.3.2 Data transfer -- 4.3.3 Data file considerations -- 4.4 Preliminary data examination -- 4.4.1 In situ calibration -- 4.4.2 Time series -- 4.4.3 Irregular and intermittent time series -- 4.4.4 Further data analysis -- 5 Temperature -- 5.1 The Celsius temperature scale -- 5.2 Liquid in glass thermometry -- 5.2.1 Fixed interval temperature scales -- 5.2.2 Liquid-in-glass thermometers -- 5.3 Electrical temperature sensors -- 5.3.1 Thermocouple -- 5.3.2 Semiconductor -- 5.3.3 Thermistor -- 5.3.4 Metal resistance thermometry -- 5.4 Resistance thermometry considerations -- 5.4.1 Thermistor measurement -- 5.4.2 Platinum resistance measurement -- 5.5 Thermometer exposure -- 5.5.1 Radiation error of air temperature sensors -- 5.5.2 Thermometer radiation screens -- 5.5.3 Radiation errors on screen temperatures -- 5.5.4 Lag times in screen temperatures -- 5.5.5 Screen condition -- 5.5.6 Modern developments in screens -- 5.6 Surface and below-surface temperature measurements -- 5.6.1 Surface temperatures -- 5.6.2 Soil temperatures -- 5.6.3 Ground heat flux density -- 6 Humidity -- 6.1 Water vapour as a gas -- 6.2 Physical measures of humidity -- 6.2.1 Absolute humidity -- 6.2.2 Specific humidity -- 6.2.3 Relative humidity -- 6.2.4 Dew point and wet bulb temperature -- 6.3 Hygrometers and their operating principles -- 6.3.1 Mechanical -- 6.3.2 Chemical -- 6.3.3 Electronic -- 6.3.4 Spectroscopic -- 6.3.5 Radio refractive index.

6.3.6 Dew point meter -- 6.3.7 Psychrometer -- 6.4 Practical psychrometers -- 6.4.1 Effect of temperature uncertainties -- 6.4.2 Ventilation effects -- 6.4.3 Freezing of the wet bulb -- 6.5 Hygrometer calibration using salt solutions -- 6.6 Comparison of hygrometry techniques -- 7 Atmospheric Pressure -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Barometers -- 7.2.1 Liquid barometers -- 7.2.2 Mercury barometers -- 7.2.3 Hypsometer -- 7.2.4 Aneroid barometers -- 7.2.5 Precision aneroid barometers -- 7.2.6 Flexible diaphragm sensors -- 7.2.7 Vibrating cylinder barometer -- 7.3 Corrections to barometers -- 7.3.1 Sea level correction -- 7.3.2 Wind speed corrections -- 8 Wind Speed and Direction -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Types of anemometer -- 8.2.1 Pressure plate anemometers -- 8.2.2 Pressure tube anemometer -- 8.2.3 Cup anemometers -- 8.2.4 Propeller anemometer -- 8.2.5 Hot sensor anemometer -- 8.2.6 Sonic anemometer -- 8.3 Wind direction -- 8.3.1 Wind vanes -- 8.3.2 Horizontal wind components -- 8.3.3 Multi-component research anemometers -- 8.4 Anemometer exposure -- 8.4.1 Anemometer deficiencies -- 8.5 Wind speed from kite tether tension -- 9 Radiation -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Solar geometry -- 9.2.1 Orbital variations -- 9.2.2 Diurnal variation -- 9.2.3 Solar time corrections -- 9.2.4 Day length calculation -- 9.2.5 Irradiance calculation -- 9.3 Shortwave radiation instruments -- 9.3.1 Thermopile pyranometer -- 9.3.2 Pyranometer theory -- 9.3.3 Silicon pyranometers -- 9.4 Pyrheliometers -- 9.5 Diffuse solar radiation measurement -- 9.5.1 Occulting disk method -- 9.5.2 Shade ring method -- 9.5.3 Reflected shortwave radiation -- 9.5.4 Fluctuations in measured radiation -- 9.6 Reference solar radiation instruments -- 9.6.1 Cavity radiometer -- 9.6.2 Secondary pyrheliometers -- 9.7 Longwave instruments -- 9.7.1 Pyrradiometer theory -- 9.7.2 Pyrradiometer calibration.

9.7.3 Pyrgeometer measurements -- 9.7.4 Commercial pyrradiometers -- 9.7.5 Radiation thermometry -- 9.8 Sunshine duration -- 9.8.1 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder -- 9.8.2 Electronic sensors -- 10 Clouds, Precipitation and Atmospheric Electricity -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Visual range -- 10.2.1 Point visibility meters -- 10.2.2 Transmissometers -- 10.2.3 Present weather sensors -- 10.3 Cloud base measurements -- 10.4 Rain gauges -- 10.4.1 Tilting siphon -- 10.4.2 Tipping bucket -- 10.4.3 Disdrometers -- 10.5 Atmospheric electricity -- 10.5.1 Potential Gradient instrumentation -- 10.5.2 Variability in the Potential Gradient -- 10.5.3 Lightning detection -- 11 Upper Air Instruments -- 11.1 Radiosondes -- 11.1.1 Sounding balloons -- 11.2 Radiosonde technology -- 11.2.1 Pressure sensor -- 11.2.2 Temperature and humidity sensors -- 11.2.3 Wind measurements from position information -- 11.2.4 Data telemetry -- 11.2.5 Radio transmitter -- 11.3 Uncertainties in radiosonde measurements -- 11.3.1 Response time -- 11.3.2 Radiation errors -- 11.3.3 Wet-bulbing -- 11.3.4 Location error -- 11.3.5 Telemetry errors -- 11.4 Specialist radiosondes -- 11.4.1 Cloud electrification -- 11.4.2 Ozone -- 11.4.3 Radioactivity and cosmic rays -- 11.4.4 Radiation -- 11.4.5 Turbulence -- 11.4.6 Supercooled liquid water -- 11.4.7 Atmospheric aerosol -- 11.5 Aircraft measurements -- 11.5.1 Air temperature -- 11.5.2 Wind -- 11.5.3 Pressure -- 11.5.4 Altitude -- 11.6 Small robotic aircraft -- 12 Further Methods for Environmental Data Analysis -- 12.1 Physical models -- 12.1.1 Surface energy balance -- 12.1.2 Turbulent quantities and eddy covariance -- 12.1.3 Soil temperature model -- 12.1.4 Vertical wind profile -- 12.2 Solar radiation models -- 12.2.1 Langleys solar radiation method -- 12.2.2 Surface solar radiation: Hollands model -- 12.3 Statistical models.

12.3.1 Histograms and distributions -- 12.3.2 Statistical tests -- 12.3.3 Wind gusts -- 12.4 Ensemble averaging -- 12.4.1 Solar radiation variation -- 12.4.2 Pressure tides -- 12.4.3 Carnegie curve -- 12.5 Spectral methods -- 12.5.1 Power spectra -- 12.5.2 Micrometeorological power spectra -- 12.6 Conclusion -- Appendix A Writing a Brief Instrumentation Paper -- A.1 Scope of an instrument paper -- A.2 Structure of an instrument paper -- A.2.1 Paper title -- A.2.2 Abstract -- A.2.3 Keywords -- A.2.4 Motivation -- A.2.5 Description -- A.2.6 Comparison -- A.2.7 Figures -- A.2.8 Summary -- A.2.9 Acknowledgements -- A.3 Submission and revisions -- Appendix B Anemometer Coordinate Rotations -- References -- Index -- EULA.