Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1 The importance of minerals in the human diet -- 1.1 Historical aspects -- 1.2 Types and metabolic function of mineral nutrients -- 1.3 Essentiality and toxicological aspects -- 1.4 Diagnosis of mineral status -- 1.5 Food culture and mineral diet content -- 1.6 Health consequences of human mineral malnutrition or excessive intake -- 1.7 Minerals, health and ageing -- 1.8 Foods or supplements as a source of minerals -- 1.9 The effect of dietetic interventions on mineral status -- 1.10 Current research and development -- Acknowledgements -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 2 Dietary intake of minerals -- 2.1 Essential, trace and toxic elements in foods -- 2.1.1 Iron -- 2.1.2 Calcium -- 2.1.3 Zinc -- 2.1.4 Selenium -- 2.1.5 Copper -- 2.1.6 Magnesium -- 2.2 Recommended daily intake -- 2.2.1 Dietary recommendations for iron -- 2.2.2 Dietary recommendations for calcium -- 2.2.3 Dietary recommendations for zinc -- 2.2.4 Dietary recommendations for selenium -- 2.2.5 Dietary recommendations for copper -- 2.2.6 Dietary recommendations for magnesium -- 2.3 The presence of minerals in diets -- 2.3.1 Dietary iron -- 2.3.2 Dietary calcium -- 2.3.3 Dietary zinc -- 2.3.4 Dietary selenium -- 2.3.5 Dietary copper -- 2.3.6 Dietary magnesium -- 2.4 Total content in complete diets -- 2.5 New challenges: speciation -- 2.5.1 Micronutrient interactions in food and bioavailability -- 2.5.2 Current methods of processing: nutritional consequences -- 2.5.3 Assesment of nutritional quality: optimization and food design -- 2.5.4 A new paradigm for meeting human needs -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 3 Bioavailability of minerals in foods -- 3.1 Bioavailability: concept, bioaccessibility and bioactivity -- 3.1.1 Definitions -- 3.1.2 Factors influencing bioavailability.

3.1.3 Effect of processing on mineral bioavailability -- 3.2 Methods for evaluating mineral bioavailability -- 3.2.1 In vivo bioavailability methods -- 3.2.2 In vitro bioavailability methods -- 3.3 Bioavailability of minerals of nutritional interest: Ca, Fe, Zn, Se -- 3.3.1 Calcium -- 3.3.2 Iron -- 3.3.3 Zinc -- 3.3.4 Selenium -- 3.4 Bioavailability of minerals with toxicological risk: As, Hg, Cd, Pb -- 3.4.1 Arsenic -- 3.4.2 Mercury -- 3.4.3 Cadmium -- 3.4.4 Lead -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 4 Human risk assessment and regulatory framework for minerals in food -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Dietary exposure and risk assessment of trace elements -- 4.2.1 Hazard identification and characterization -- 4.2.2 Exposure assessment and risk characterization -- 4.3 Human biomonitoring for risk assessment of metals -- 4.3.1 Biomarker characterization -- 4.3.2 Biomonitoring programmes and studies -- 4.3.3 Risk characterization using biomonitoring -- 4.4 Risk management and regulatory framework -- 4.4.1 Legislative framework and regulated levels in food -- 4.4.2 Monitoring, sampling and methods of analysis -- 4.4.3 The European Community's Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed -- 4.5 Conclusions and future perspectives -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 5 The oligoelements -- 5.1 Considerations -- 5.2 Importance of oligoelements -- 5.3 The oligoelements -- 5.3.1 Arsenic -- 5.3.2 Boron -- 5.3.3 Chromium -- 5.3.4 Cobalt -- 5.3.5 Copper -- 5.3.6 Fluoride -- 5.3.7 Iodine -- 5.3.8 Iron -- 5.3.9 Magnesium -- 5.3.10 Manganese -- 5.3.11 Molybdenum -- 5.3.12 Nickel -- 5.3.13 Selenium -- 5.3.14 Sulfur -- 5.3.15 Tin -- 5.3.16 Vanadium -- 5.3.17 Zinc -- 5.4 The functional specificity of oligoelements -- 5.5 Nutritional aspects, deficiencies and excess of oligoelements -- 5.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- Abbreviations -- References.

Chapter 6 The toxic elements -- 6.1 Toxic metals in foods -- 6.2 Beryllium -- 6.2.1 General information -- 6.2.2 Environmental considerations -- 6.2.3 Toxic effects -- 6.2.4 Beryllium in foods -- 6.3 Cadmium -- 6.3.1 General information -- 6.3.2 Environmental considerations -- 6.3.3 Toxic effects -- 6.3.4 Cadmium in foods -- 6.4 Lead -- 6.4.1 General information -- 6.4.2 Environmental considerations -- 6.4.3 Toxic effects -- 6.4.4 Lead in foods -- 6.5 Mercury -- 6.5.1 General information -- 6.5.2 Environmental considerations -- 6.5.3 Toxic effects -- 6.5.4 Mercury in food -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 7 Geographical variation of land mineral composition -- 7.1 Chemical composition of the earth's crust -- 7.2 Natural abundance of chemical elements -- 7.3 Soil-forming factors and processes -- 7.4 Soil geographic variation and mapping -- 7.5 Bioavailability of chemical elements in soil -- 7.6 Extraction techniques for estimating bioavailability of nutrients and metals in soils -- 7.6.1 Exchangeable cations -- 7.6.2 Extractions with Mehlich-I, Mehlich-II and Mehlich-III solutions -- 7.6.3 Oxalic acid/ammonium oxalate (under darkness) -- 7.6.4 Dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate (DCB) method -- 7.6.5 EDTA and DTPA methods -- 7.6.6 Pyrophosphate extraction -- 7.6.7 Exchange resins -- 7.6.8 Sequential extractions -- 7.6.9 Passive samplers -- 7.6.10 Biological assays -- Acknowledgements -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 8 Variation of food mineral content during industrial and culinary processing -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Effects of refrigeration on mineral composition -- 8.3 Effects of cooking procedures on the mineral content of different types of foods -- 8.4 Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of minerals after cooking -- 8.5 Changes in essential trace element content during industrial processing.

8.6 Fortification of foods with minerals -- 8.7 Changes in element speciation during the cooking procedure -- 8.8 Conclusion -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 9 Speciation analysis of food -- 9.1 Speciation, bioaccessibility and bioavailability -- 9.2 From the isotopic composition to the molecular structure -- 9.2.1 Isotopic composition -- 9.2.2 Electronic or oxidation state -- 9.2.3 Complex or molecular structure -- 9.3 Challenging elements in food for speciation analysis -- 9.4 The cycle of the elements from nature to food sources and metabolites -- 9.4.1 Uptake and accumulation -- 9.4.2 Intake, bioavailability, bioaccessibility and excretion -- 9.5 The role of elemental speciation in legislation -- 9.6 Conclusions and future trends -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 10 Atomic absorption spectrometry -- 10.1 Atomic spectrometry: history -- 10.2 Introduction -- 10.3 Electromagnetic radiation: interaction with atoms -- 10.4 Relationship between concentration and analytical signal -- 10.5 The source of electromagnetic radiation -- 10.6 The flame atomizer -- 10.7 Detection of the radiation -- 10.8 Spectrometer configuration: correction devices -- 10.9 Calibration -- 10.10 Interferences -- 10.11 Alternative ways of sample introduction in FAAS -- 10.12 Techniques involving vapour generation -- 10.12.1 Cold vapour technique -- 10.12.2 Hydride generation technique -- 10.13 Electrothermal atomization -- 10.13.1 Types of atomizer -- 10.13.2 Heating program -- 10.13.3 Chemical modifiers -- 10.13.4 Background correction -- 10.13.5 Sample introduction -- 10.14 Speciation -- 10.14.1 Non-chromatographic procedures -- 10.14.2 Chromatographic procedures -- 10.15 Sample treatment -- 10.16 Conclusions -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 11 Elemental composition analysis of food by FAES and ICP-OES.

11.1 Sampling and sample preparation for FAES and ICP-OES determination -- 11.1.1 Sampling -- 11.1.2 Food treatment for elemental analysis by atomic emission spectrometry -- 11.2 Inorganic analysis of major, minor and trace elements in food samples -- 11.2.1 Flame emission techniques for analysis of food samples -- 11.2.2 ICP-OES applied to food analysis -- 11.3 Conclusions and future trends -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 12 New developments in food analysis by ICP-MS -- 12.1 Inductively coupled plasma as ion source for mass spectrometry -- 12.1.1 Sample introduction into the ICP -- 12.1.2 Extraction of the ions into the mass spectrometer -- 12.1.3 Mass spectrometers employed in ICP-MS -- 12.1.4 Ion detection -- 12.2 Spectral interpretation in ICP-MS -- 12.2.1 Removal of spectral interferences -- 12.2.2 Qualitative analysis -- 12.3 Quantification modes in ICP-MS -- 12.3.1 Semi-quantitative analysis using the response curve -- 12.3.2 Calibration with internal standards -- 12.3.3 Isotope dilution mass spectrometry -- 12.4 Total elemental analysis -- 12.4.1 Legal requirements -- 12.4.2 Sample preparation procedures -- 12.4.3 Examples of food and beverages analysis -- 12.4.4 Validation of methodologies: food reference materials -- 12.5 Speciation analysis -- 12.5.1 Separation techniques employed in speciation analysis using ICP-MS -- 12.5.2 Elements of interest in food and beverages -- 12.5.3 Extraction procedures -- 12.5.4 Bioavalability studies -- 12.5.5 Isotope dilution mass spectrometry -- 12.6 Provenance studies -- Abbreviations -- References -- Chapter 13 Electroanalytical methods: application of electrochemical techniques for mineral elements analysis in food -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Ion-selective electrodes -- 13.2.1 Alkaline earth and alkaline ions -- 13.2.2 Divalent metal ions other than alkaline earth ions.

13.2.3 Trivalent metal ions.