Oil and Gas Pipelines: Integrity and Safety Handbook -- Contents -- Preface -- Contributors -- Part I: Design -- 1 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS) -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity -- 1.3 What Is a PIMS? -- 1.4 Regulatory Requirements -- 1.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements -- 1.6 PIMS Function Map -- 1.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational -- 1.8 Do: Execute -- 1.9 Check: Assurance and Verification -- 1.10 Act: Management Review -- 1.11 Culture -- 1.12 Summary -- References -- 2 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 SCADA Computer Servers -- 2.3 SCADA Computer Workstations -- 2.4 Hierarchy -- 2.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases -- 2.6 Fault Tolerance -- 2.7 Redundancy -- 2.8 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis -- 2.9 Incident Review and Replay -- 2.10 Data Quality -- 2.11 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover -- 2.12 Training -- 2.13 SCADA User Permissions and AORs -- 2.14 Web Connection -- 2.15 SCADA Security -- 2.16 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems -- 2.17 SCADA Standards -- 2.18 Pipeline Industry Applications -- 2.18.1 Leak Detection -- 2.18.2 Batch Tracking -- 2.18.3 Dynamic Pipeline Highlight -- 2.19 Communication Media -- 2.19.1 Cat5 Data Cable -- 2.19.2 Leased Line -- 2.19.3 Microwave -- 2.19.4 Dial-Up Line -- 2.19.5 Optical Fiber -- 2.19.6 Satellite -- 2.20 Communications Infrastructure -- 2.21 Communications Integrity -- 2.22 RTUs and PLCs -- 2.23 Database -- 2.24 User-Defined Programs -- 2.25 RTU/PLC Integrity -- References -- 3 Material Selection for Fracture Control -- 3.1 Overview of Fracture Control -- 3.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation -- 3.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation -- 3.4 Toughness Measurement -- 3.4.1 Toughness Measurement: Impact Tests -- 3.4.2 Toughness Measurement: J, CTOD, and CTOA.

3.5 Current Status -- References -- 4 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines -- 4.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts -- 4.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design -- 4.1.2 Deterministic versus Probabilistic Design Methods -- 4.1.3 Limit States -- 4.1.4 Displacement Control versus Load Control -- 4.1.5 Strain-Based Design Applications -- 4.2 Strain Demand -- 4.2.1 Overview -- 4.2.2 Challenging Environments and Strain Demand -- 4.2.3 Strain Levels and Analysis Considerations -- 4.3 Strain Capacity -- 4.3.1 Overview -- 4.3.2 Compressive Strain Capacity -- 4.3.3 Tensile Strain Capacity -- 4.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing -- 4.5 Summary -- References -- 5 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Design Pressure -- 5.2.1 Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure -- 5.2.2 Maximum Operating Pressure -- 5.2.3 Surge Pressure -- 5.2.4 Test Pressure -- 5.3 Design Factor -- 5.4 Determination of Components of Stress -- 5.4.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses -- 5.4.2 Longitudinal Stress -- 5.4.3 Shear Stress -- 5.4.4 Equivalent Stress -- 5.4.5 Limits of Calculated Stress -- 5.5 Fatigue -- 5.5.1 Fatigue Life -- 5.5.2 Fatigue Limit -- 5.5.3 S-N Curve -- 5.6 Expansion and Flexibility -- 5.6.1 Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors -- 5.7 Corrosion Allowance -- 5.7.1 Internal Corrosion Allowance -- 5.7.2 External Corrosion Allowance -- 5.7.3 Formulas -- 5.8 Pipeline Stiffness -- 5.8.1 Calculation of Pipeline Stiffness -- 5.8.2 Calculation of Induced Bending Moment -- 5.9 Pipeline Ovality -- 5.9.1 Brazier Effect -- 5.9.2 Ovality of a Buried Pipeline -- 5.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius -- 5.10.1 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Concrete -- 5.10.2 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Steel -- 5.10.3 Installation Condition -- 5.10.4 In-Service Condition -- 5.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure -- 5.11.1 Buried Installation.

5.11.2 Above-Ground or Unburied Installation -- 5.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions -- 5.13 Summary -- References -- 6 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility -- 6.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications -- 6.3.1 Design Challenges -- 6.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges -- 6.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges -- 6.4 Typical Pipe Properties -- 6.5 Technology Qualification -- 6.6 Additional Resources -- 6.7 Summary -- References -- 7 Residual Stress in Pipelines -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses -- 7.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses -- 7.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance -- 7.2.1 Fatigue -- 7.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking -- 7.2.3 Corrosion Fatigue -- 7.2.4 Effects of Cold Working and Microscopic Residual Stresses -- 7.3 Residual Stress Measurement -- 7.3.1 Center Hole Drilling Method -- 7.3.2 Ring Core Method -- 7.3.3 Diffraction Methods -- 7.3.4 Synchrotron X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction: Full Stress Tensor Determination -- 7.3.5 Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Method -- 7.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses -- 7.4.1 Shot Peening -- 7.4.2 Roller or Ball Burnishing and Low Plasticity Burnishing -- 7.4.3 Laser Shock Peening -- 7.4.4 Thermal Stress Relief -- 7.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work -- 7.5.1 Case Study 1: Restoration of the Fatigue Performance of Corrosion and Fretting Damaged 4340 Steel -- 7.5.2 Case Study 2: Mitigating SCC in Stainless Steel Weldments -- 7.5.3 Case Study 3: Mitigation of Sulfide Stress Cracking in P110 Oil Field Couplings -- 7.5.4 Case Study 4: Improving Corrosion Fatigue Performance and Damage Tolerance of 410 Stainless Steel -- 7.5.5 Case Study 5: Improving the Fatigue Performance of Downhole Tubular Components -- References.

8 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis -- 8.2.1 Overview -- 8.2.2 Pipeline Routing -- 8.2.3 Geotechnical Investigations -- 8.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design -- 8.3.1 Overview -- 8.3.2 Physical Modeling -- 8.3.3 Computational Engineering Tools -- 8.3.4 Guidance on Best Practice to Enhance Computational Pipe/Soil Interaction Analysis -- 8.3.5 Emerging Research -- 8.3.6 Soil Constitutive Models -- 8.3.7 Advancing the State of Art into Engineering Practice through an Integrated Technology Framework -- Nomenclature -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 9 Human Factors -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 What Is "Human Factors"? -- 9.3 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors -- 9.3.1 Example Case Study -- 9.4 Human Factors and Decision Making -- 9.4.1 Information Receipt -- 9.4.2 Information Processing -- 9.5 Application of Human Factors Guidance -- 9.6 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making -- 9.6.1 Satisficing Heuristic -- 9.6.2 Cue Primacy and Anchoring -- 9.6.3 Selective Attention -- 9.6.4 Availability Heuristic -- 9.6.5 Representativeness Heuristic -- 9.6.6 Cognitive Tunneling -- 9.6.7 Confirmation Bias -- 9.6.8 Framing Bias -- 9.6.9 Management of Decision-Making Challenges -- 9.7 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry -- 9.8 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited -- 9.9 Summary -- References -- Bibliography -- Part II: Manufacture, Fabrication, and Construction -- 10 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development -- 10.2.1 Thermomechanically Controlled Processing of Pipeline Steels -- 10.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels -- 10.3.1 Fracture of Pipeline Steels.

10.3.2 Effect of Phase Transformation on the Texture Components -- 10.3.3 Effect of Austenite Recrystallization on Plate Texture -- 10.3.4 Effect of Austenite Pancaking on the Rolling Texture -- 10.3.5 Effect of Finish Rolling in the Intercritical Region -- 10.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy -- 10.5 Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 11 Pipe Manufacture-Introduction -- 11.1 Pipe Manufacturing Background -- 11.2 Current Trends in Line Pipe Manufacturing -- References -- 12 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Manufacturing Process -- 12.3 Quality Control Procedures -- 12.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions -- 12.5 Typical Fields of Application -- 13 Pipe Manufacture-Spiral Pipe -- 13.1 Manufacturing Process -- 13.2 Quality Control Procedures -- 13.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions -- 13.4 Typical Fields of Applicability -- References -- 14 Pipe Manufacture-ERW Pipe -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Manufacturing Process -- 14.3 Quality Control Procedures -- 14.3.1 Welding Line -- 14.3.2 Finishing Line -- 14.3.3 Destructive Material Testing -- 14.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions -- 14.5 Typical Fields of Applicability -- References -- 15 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe -- 15.1 The Rolling Process -- 15.1.1 Introduction and History -- 15.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology -- 15.1.3 Pilger Rolling -- 15.1.4 Plug Rolling -- 15.1.5 Mandrel Rolling -- 15.1.6 Forging -- 15.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing -- 15.2 Further Processing -- 15.2.1 Heat Treatment -- 15.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks -- 15.2.3 Finishing Lines -- References -- 16 Major Standards for Line Pipe Manufacturing and Testing -- 16.1 API SPEC 5L/ISO 3183 -- 16.2 CSA Z662-11: Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems -- 16.3 DNV-OS-F101-2012: Submarine Pipeline Systems.

16.4 ISO 15156-1:2009: Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries- Materials for Use in H2S-Containing Environments in Oil and Gas Production.