Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- About the authors -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 1 Introduction to spray drying -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Stage 1: Atomization -- 1.2.1 Principle of atomization -- 1.2.2 Classification of atomizers -- 1.2.2.1 Rotary atomizers -- 1.2.2.2 Pressure nozzle (or hydraulic) atomizer -- 1.2.2.3 Two-fluid nozzle atomizer -- 1.2.2.4 Ultrasonic atomizers -- 1.2.2.5 Electrohydrodynamic atomizers -- 1.3 Stage 2: Spray-air contact -- 1.4 Stage 3: Evaporation of moisture -- 1.5 Stage 4: Particle separation -- 1.5.1 Cyclone separator -- 1.5.2 Bag filter -- 1.5.3 Electrostatic precipitator -- 1.6 Morphology of spray dried particles -- 1.6.1 Skin-forming morphology with hollow internal structure -- 1.6.2 Blow-hole formation -- 1.6.3 Agglomerate -- 1.6.4 Formation of dented structure and presence of small particles within large particles -- 1.7 Spray-drying process parameters and their influence on product quality -- 1.7.1 Atomization parameters -- 1.7.1.1 Atomization pressure -- 1.7.1.2 Feed flow rate -- 1.7.1.3 Feed viscosity -- 1.7.1.4 Feed surface tension -- 1.8 Parameters of spray-air contact and evaporation -- 1.8.1 Aspirator flow rate (or speed) -- 1.8.2 Inlet temperature -- 1.8.3 Outlet temperature -- 1.8.4 Glass transition temperature (Tg) -- 1.8.5 Residence time of particles in the spray chamber -- 1.9 Types of spray dryer -- 1.9.1 Open cycle spray dryer -- 1.9.2 Closed cycle spray dryer -- 1.9.3 Semi-closed cycle spray dryer -- 1.9.4 Single-stage spray dryer -- 1.9.5 Two-stage spray dryer -- 1.9.6 Short-form -- 1.9.7 Tall-form -- 1.10 Applications and advantages of spray drying -- References -- Chapter 2 Introduction to encapsulation of food ingredients -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Encapsulation of food ingredients -- 2.3 The core and wall for encapsulation -- 2.3.1 Carbohydrates -- 2.3.2 Proteins.

2.3.3 Lipids -- 2.4 Encapsulation techniques -- 2.4.1 Chemical encapsulation processes -- 2.4.1.1 Coacervation -- 2.4.1.2 Inclusion complexation -- 2.4.1.3 Liposome entrapment -- 2.4.2 Mechanical or physical encapsulation processes -- 2.4.2.1 Emulsification -- 2.4.2.2 Spray chilling, spray cooling and fluidized bed drying -- 2.4.2.3 Freeze drying -- 2.4.2.4 Extrusion -- 2.4.2.5 Electrohydrodynamic technique for microencapsulation: electrospraying and electrospinning -- 2.4.2.6 Spray drying -- 2.5 The lexicon of encapsulation -- References -- Chapter 3 Spray drying for encapsulation -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Principle of encapsulation by spray drying -- 3.3 Process steps and parameters of encapsulation by spray drying -- 3.3.1 Emulsion formation -- 3.3.1.1 Rationale of emulsification step -- 3.3.1.2 Emulsion parameters influencing encapsulation efficiency -- 3.3.2 Spray drying of emulsion -- 3.3.2.1 Atomization of the emulsion and influencing parameters -- 3.3.2.2 Drying of the emulsion droplets and influencing parameters -- 3.4 Food ingredients encapsulated by spray drying -- 3.4.1 Microorganisms -- 3.4.2 Flavors -- 3.4.3 Bioactive food components -- References -- Chapter 4 Selection of wall material for encapsulation by spray drying -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Characteristics of wall materials for encapsulation by spray drying -- 4.2.1 Solubility -- 4.2.2 Emulsification property -- 4.2.3 Film-forming ability -- 4.2.4 Viscosity -- 4.2.5 Glass transition -- 4.2.6 Degree of crystallinity -- 4.3 Approaches to choose wall materials for encapsulation -- 4.3.1 Estimation of drying kinetics and drying curve analysis for wall material selection -- 4.3.1.1 Isothermal drying method -- 4.3.1.2 Estimation of drying kinetics under simulated conditions of spray drying -- 4.3.2 Estimation of emulsification capacity.

4.3.3 Analysis of viscosity and rheological characteristics of wall material dispersion -- 4.3.4 Determination of thermal properties of wall materials -- 4.4 Commonly used wall materials for encapsulation of food ingredients by spray drying -- 4.4.1 Gum Arabic -- 4.4.2 Maltodextrin -- 4.4.3 Whey protein (concentrate or isolate) -- 4.4.4 Gelatin -- 4.4.5 Sodium caseinate -- 4.4.6 Modified starches -- 4.4.7 Chitosan -- References -- Chapter 5 Encapsulation of probiotics by spray drying -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Definition of probiotics and significance of probiotics encapsulation -- 5.3 Probiotic characteristics of importance to spray drying encapsulation -- 5.4 Criteria to decide suitability of wall material for encapsulation of probiotics -- 5.5 Selection of spray drying process parameters -- 5.5.1 Effect of atomization on probiotic cell viability -- 5.5.2 Effect of spray drying process conditions on probiotic cell survival -- 5.5.2.1 Thermal effect of spray drying process on cell viability -- 5.5.2.2 Dehydration effect of spray drying process on cell viability -- 5.6 Stability of spray dried probiotic microencapsulates to gastric environment -- References -- Chapter 6 Encapsulation of flavors and specialty oils -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Selective diffusion theory and mechanisms of volatile retention during spray drying -- 6.3 Performance parameters of flavor encapsulation by spray drying -- 6.3.1 Encapsulation efficiency -- 6.3.1.1 Total oil analysis -- 6.3.1.2 Surface oil analysis -- 6.3.2 Lipid oxidation -- 6.3.2.1 Peroxide value determination -- 6.3.2.2 Active oxygen determination -- 6.3.3 Morphology and particle size -- 6.4 Factors influencing encapsulation of flavors and oils by spray drying -- 6.4.1 Emulsion-related factors -- 6.4.1.1 Wall material -- 6.4.1.2 Core -- 6.4.2 Spray drying-related factors -- 6.4.2.1 Atomization factors.

6.4.2.2 Inlet and exit air temperatures -- 6.4.2.3 Feed temperature -- References -- Chapter 7 Encapsulation of bioactive ingredients by spray drying -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Spray drying for encapsulation of polyphenols -- 7.2.1 Polyphenols and their functional properties -- 7.2.2 Rationale for encapsulation of polyphenols -- 7.2.3 Influence of core nature on encapsulation efficiency -- 7.2.4 Influence of wall material selection and spray drying process parameters on polyphenolic core retention -- 7.3 Spray drying encapsulation of vitamins -- 7.3.1 The functional benefits of vitamins -- 7.3.2 Vitamin stability and rationale for encapsulation of vitamins -- 7.3.3 Influence of wall material and feed composition on vitamin encapsulation -- 7.3.4 Influence of spray drying process parameters on vitamin encapsulation -- 7.4 Spray drying encapsulation of carotenoids -- 7.4.1 Carotenoids and their functional significance -- 7.4.2 Rationale for encapsulation of carotenoids -- 7.4.3 Effect of wall material selection and feed composition on encapsulation of carotenoids -- 7.4.4 Effect of spray drying process conditions on encapsulation of carotenoids -- References -- Chapter 8 Spray drying for nanoencapsulation of food components -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Introduction to food nanoparticles and nanoencapsulation -- 8.3 Nano spray dryer -- 8.3.1 Operation principle of nano spray dryer -- 8.3.1.1 Piezo-electric driven vibrating mesh atomization -- 8.3.1.2 Heating mode, hot air flow pattern in and configuration of spray chamber -- 8.3.1.3 Product separation by electrostatic precipitator -- 8.4 Nanoencapsulation of food bioactive compounds by nano spray dryer -- 8.5 Analytical methods to characterize nanoencapsulates in foods -- 8.5.1 Electron microscopy -- 8.5.1.1 Scanning electron microscopy -- 8.5.1.2 Transmission electron microscopy.

8.5.1.3 Atomic force microscopy -- 8.5.1.4 Atmospheric scanning electron microscopy -- 8.5.2 Quantification of nanoparticles' size and mass by electron microscopy -- References -- Chapter 9 Functional properties of spray dried encapsulates -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Controlled release of encapsulated bioactive compounds -- 9.2.1 Controlled release by dissolution -- 9.2.2 Controlled release by diffusion -- 9.3 Masking of off-taste by spray drying encapsulation -- 9.4 Improvement in stability of encapsulated bioactive compounds -- References -- Chapter 10 Analysis of spray dried encapsulates -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Analysis of physical characteristics of spray dried encapsulates -- 10.2.1 Moisture content -- 10.2.2 Particle size -- 10.3 Analysis of the efficiency of spray drying encapsulation process -- 10.3.1 Estimation of encapsulation efficiency -- 10.3.1.1 Encapsulation efficiency of specialty oils -- 10.3.1.2 Encapsulation efficiency of vitamins and polyphenolic compounds -- 10.3.1.3 Encapsulation efficiency of flavors and other volatile compounds -- 10.3.1.4 Encapsulation efficiency of probiotic cells -- 10.4 Analysis of the stability of spray dried microencapsulates -- 10.4.1 Analysis of probiotic cell stability under simulated in vitro gastrointestinal conditions -- 10.4.2 Analysis of oxidative stability for lipophilic core compounds -- 10.4.2.1 Estimation of peroxide value by spectrophotometry method -- 10.4.2.2 Rancimat method for estimation of peroxide value -- 10.4.2.3 Gas chromatography method for analysis of oxidative stability -- 10.4.3 Analysis of the functional properties of spray dried encapsulates -- 10.4.3.1 Study of core release from microencapsulates -- 10.4.3.2 Taste-masking effects -- References -- Chapter 11 Modeling approach for spray drying and encapsulation applications -- 11.1 Introduction.

11.2 Computational fluid dynamics modeling.