CONTENTS -- AUTHORS' APPOINTMENTS -- 1 CHILDHOOD STROKE - THE UNKINDEST CUT OF ALL: A HISTORY OF CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE IN CHILDHOOD -- Introduction -- History of childhood stroke -- Conclusion -- 2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN CIRCULATION -- General aspects of development of the arterial supply to the brain tissue -- General and phylogenetic aspects of the cerebral vascularization -- Conclusion -- 3 THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD STROKE -- Introduction -- Incidence and stroke subtypes -- Health care utilization -- Conclusion -- 4 CLINICAL AND IMAGING FEATURES OF CHILDHOOD STROKE -- 4.1.1 Anterior circulation stroke -- Introduction -- Predisposing conditions -- Clinical presentation -- Common ischaemic stroke syndromes in children -- 4.1.2 Posterior Circulation Strokes in Children -- Introduction -- Vascular anatomy -- Vascular syndromes of the brainstem -- Risk factors -- 4.1.3 Spinal Cord Stroke -- Introduction -- Anatomy of the arterial supply to the spinal cord -- Ischaemic stroke -- Spinal cord haemorrhage -- Spinal cord arteriovenous malformations -- Management of spinal cord stroke -- 4.2.1 Imaging of Paediatric Stroke -- Introduction -- Imaging modalities in paediatric stroke -- Sedation of children for neuroimaging -- Neuroimaging of paediatric stroke -- Diagnostic difficulties in stroke -- 4.2.2 Recent Advances in Magnetic Resonance Imaging -- Introduction -- Principles of MR diffusion imaging -- Principles of MR perfusion imaging -- Applications of diffusion and perfusion imaging -- Conclusion -- 5 RISK FACTORS AND TRIGGERS FOR CRYPTOGENIC (AND SYMPTOMATIC) STROKE -- 5.1 Cerebrovascular Diseases from Infectious/Inflammatory Origin -- Introduction -- Animal models of cerebrovascular diseases associated with infections -- Cerebrovascular diseases and infections in human -- Conclusion -- 5.2 Thrombophilia and Childhood Stroke.

Pathophysiology of vascular occlusion -- Thromboembolic manifestations in children -- Established and putative prothrombotic risk factors -- The role of prothrombotic disorders in ischaemic stroke in children -- Laboratory evaluation -- 5.3 Hypertension and Childhood Stroke -- Introduction -- Clinical data -- Paediatric stroke -- Sickle cell disease, hypertension and stroke -- Haemorrhagic stroke and hypertension -- Transcranial Doppler -- Conclusion -- 5.4 Trauma -- 5.5 Iron Deficiency -- 5.6 Patent Foramen Ovale and Paradoxical Embolism -- Transthoracic or transoesophageal echocardiography? -- 6 ARTERIAL ISCHAEMIC STROKE AND VASCULAR DISEASE IN CHILDHOOD -- 6.1 Cervicocephalic Arterial Dissections in Childhood and Adolescence -- Introduction -- The role of cervicocephalic dissections in ischaemic stroke in children -- Epidemiology -- Pathology and aetiology -- Pathogenesis -- Presentation -- Treatment -- Follow-up -- Conclusions -- 6.2 Transient Cerebral Arteriopathy -- Introduction -- General features -- Epidemiology and physiopathology -- Clinical and paraclinical features -- Diagnosis -- Treatment and outcome -- Conclusion and perspectives -- 6.3 Moyamoya Syndrome in Childhood -- Introduction -- Epidemiology -- Pathology -- Aetiology -- Clinical presentation -- Diagnosis -- Treatment -- Outcome -- 6.4 Cerebral Vasculitis -- Introduction -- Clinical features -- Investigation -- Cerebral vasculitis as part of systemic disease -- Treatment -- Conclusion -- 6.5 Vasospasm -- 6.6 Tortuosity and Dolichoectasia -- 6.7 Developmental venous anomalies -- 7 CEREBAL SINOVENOUS (VENOUS SINUS) THROMBOSIS -- Introduction -- Epidemiology -- Anatomy and physiology -- Pathophysiology of cerebal sinovenous thrombosis -- Clinical setting -- Clinical features -- Prothrombotic risk factors -- Radiographic diagnosis and features -- Acute treatment.

Long-term management -- Mortality -- Neurological outcome -- Conclusion -- 8 HAEMORRHAGIC STROKE -- 8.1 Non-traumatic Intracranial Haemorrhage in Children -- Clinical aspects of intracranial haemorrhage in children -- Intraparenchymal haemorrhage -- Vascular causes of non-traumatic intracranial haemorrhage -- Systemic causes of intracranial haemorrhage -- Radiological investigations and appearances -- 8.2 Surgical Treatment of Haemorrhagic Stroke in Children -- Introduction -- Haemorrhage due to structural lesions -- Haemorrhage due to non-structural causes -- Summary -- 8.3 Interventional Neuroradiology in the Management of Aneurysms and Arteriovenous Shunts in Children -- Introduction -- Aneurysms -- Arteriovenous shunts -- Clinical manifestations and natural history of cerebral arteriovenous shunts -- Pathophysiology and anatomical predictors of risk -- Objective of treatment -- Technical management -- PAVMs at Hôpital Bicêtre -- Conclusion -- 8.4 Stereotactic Radiosurgery in the Management of Arteriovenous Malformations in Children -- Introduction -- Leksell gamma knife radiosurgery for arteriovenous malformation -- Treatment -- Follow-up -- Results -- Complications -- Conclusions -- 9 NEONATAL STROKE -- 9.1 Perinatal Arterial Stroke -- Introduction -- Occurrence -- Classification -- Background and aetiology of perinatal arterial stroke -- Clinical presentation -- Diagnosis -- Neurodevelopmental outcome -- Treatment - neonatal -- 9.2 Intracranial Haemorrhage in the Newborn -- Introduction -- Extradural haemorrhage -- Subdural haemorrhage -- Subarachnoid haemorrhage -- Intraparenchymal haemorrhage -- Intraventricular haemorrhage -- Outcome -- Conclusions -- 10 VEIN OF GALEN ANEURYSMAL MALFORMATION -- Introduction -- Morphology of the vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation -- Natural history of the vein of Galen aneurysmal malformations.

Objectives and methods of treatment -- Technical management -- The place of other techniques -- 11 STURGE-WEBER SYNDROME -- Background -- Pathological studies -- Neuroimaging -- Hemiplegia and migraine -- Epilepsy -- Neurodevelopmental and cognitive outcome -- Management -- 12 HEMIPLEGIC MIGRAINE -- Introduction -- Classification, clinical features and genetics of hemiplegic migraine -- Pathophysiology of hemiplegic migraine -- Management of hemiplegic migraine -- Outcome -- 13 ALTERNATING HEMIPLEGIA OF CHILDHOOD -- Introduction -- Clinical findings -- Clinical course -- Laboratory findings -- Differential diagnosis -- Treatment -- Comments -- 14 INBORN METABOLIC DISEASE AND ACUTE FOCAL NEUROLOGY -- Introduction -- Inborn errors of metabolism causing stroke through vascular mechanisms -- Inborn errors of metabolism causing stroke through non-vascular mechanisms -- Conclusions -- 15 SYMPTOMATIC STROKE -- 15.1 Cardiac Disorders -- Epidemiology -- Stroke in children with congenital heart disease -- Treatment -- Prevention of recurrence -- 15.2 Genetically Determined Vasculopathies and Stroke Syndromes without Neurocutaneous Stigmata -- Down syndrome -- Williams-Beuren syndrome -- Turner syndrome -- Noonan syndrome -- Alagille syndrome -- Marfan syndrome -- Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) type IV -- Congenital disorders of glycosylation or carbohydrate deficient glycoprotein syndromes -- Osteopetrosis -- Schimke immunoosseous dysplasia -- COL4A1 mutations -- CADASIL -- Grange syndrome -- Mutations in smooth muscle alpha-actin (ACTA2) -- 15.3 Genetically Determined Vasculopathies and Stroke Syndromes with Neurocutaneous Syndromes -- PHACE(S) -- Neurofibromatosis type 1 -- Tuberous sclerosis -- Incontinentia pigmenti -- Sneddon syndrome -- Pigmented and depigmented naevi and hypomelanosis of Ito -- Vascular naevi.

Bonnet-Dechaume-Blanc or Wyburn-Mason syndrome -- PTEN mutations -- Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia -- Pseudoxanthoma elasticum -- 15.4 Congenital and Acquired Anaemias -- Introduction -- Congenital disorders of haemoglobin -- Acquired aplastic anaemias -- Congenital aplastic anaemias -- Acquired haemolytic anaemias -- Hereditary haemolytic anaemias -- 15.5 Immunodeficiency and Bone Marrow Transplantation -- 15.6 Premature Ageing Syndromes (Progerias) -- Other premature ageing syndromes (progerias) -- 15.7 Stroke in Children with Cancer -- Cerebrovascular disease and stroke -- Diffuse brain damage -- Rehabilitation, cognitive therapy and education -- 15.8 Inflammatory Vasculopathies -- Takayasu arteritis -- Polyarteritis nodosa -- Systemic lupus erythematosus -- Nephrotic syndrome -- Inflammatory bowel disease -- Henoch-Schönlein purpura -- Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura -- Kawasaki disease -- Behçet disease -- Susac syndrome -- 15.9 Summary -- 16 ACUTE MANAGEMENT -- Introduction -- Organization -- General care measures -- Emergency neuroimaging -- Conclusion -- 17 RECURRENCE, OUTCOME AND REHABILITATION -- 17.1 Recurrence and Secondary Prevention -- Risk of recurrence -- Prevention of AIS recurrence -- 17.2 Outcome after Stroke in Childhood -- Health outcomes -- Measuring outcome in paediatric stroke -- Specific aspects of functional outcome following stroke -- Conclusion -- 17.3 Ontogenetic Specialization of Hemispheric Function -- Introduction -- The equipotentiality view -- The early specialization view -- The ontogenetic specialization view -- Effects of hemiplegia-causing lesions on intelligence -- Conclusions -- 17.4 Neurodevelopmental Outcome in Children with Congenital Heart Defects -- Types of congenital heart disease and cognitive outcome -- Effect of chronic hypoxaemia and heart failure on cognitive function.

Preoperative studies.