Freshwater Ecosystems -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Executive Summary -- CONTEMPORARY WATER MANAGEMENT: ROLE OF LIMNOLOGY -- STATUS OF LIMNOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY SYSTEM -- EDUCATION IN LIMNOLOGY: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE -- LINKING WATER MANAGEMENT, RESEARCH, AND EDUCATION IN LIMNOLOGY -- 1 Overview: Status of Inland Waters -- FRESH WATERS AT RISK -- SOURCES OF STRESS ON INLAND WATERS -- RESTORING INLAND WATERS: THE ROLE OF LIMNOLOGY -- REFERENCES -- 2 Limnology, the Science of Inland Waters: Evolution and Current Status -- EARLY HISTORY -- REGIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ERA -- MIDCENTURY EXPANSION -- Experimental Limnology -- Paleolimnology -- RECENT HISTORY -- Research Driven by Pollution Concerns -- Diversification of Disciplines Participating in Limnological Research -- Limnology Beyond Small Temperate Lakes -- Stream Limnology -- Wetland Ecology -- CURRENT STATUS -- REFERENCES -- 3 Contemporary Water Management: Role of Limnology -- PHYSICAL CHANGES IN WATERSHEDS AND WATER BODIES -- Dam and Impoundment Building -- Wetlands Destruction -- Other Modifications to Watersheds -- Global Warming -- CHEMICAL CHANGES IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- Municipal, Industrial, and Agricultural Waste Discharges -- Loss of Dissolved Oxygen -- Cultural Eutrophication -- Accumulation of Toxic Pollutants -- Acid Rain and Toxic Air Pollutants -- BIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- Exotic Species Introduction -- Species Extinction -- ENHANCING THE ROLE OF LIMNOLOGY IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT -- REFERENCES -- 4 Education in Limnology: Current Status and Recommendations for Improvement -- LIMNOLOGY UNDER THE CURRENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM -- Undergraduate Education in Limnology Under the Current System -- Graduate Education in Limnology Under the Current System -- Improving Education in Limnology: The Basis for Reform.

STRENGTHENING LIMNOLOGY THROUGH ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS -- Departments of Aquatic Science -- Interdisciplinary Programs in Aquatic Science -- DESIGNING EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS IN LIMNOLOGY: CURRICULAR ISSUES -- Curricula for Undergraduate Students -- Introductory Course in Limnology -- Undergraduate Curriculum in Limnology -- Synthesis Course in Limnology -- Laboratory and Field Experience for Undergraduates -- Programs for the Master of Science Degree -- Programs for the Ph.D. Degree -- Postdoctoral Programs -- ROLE OF FIELD RESEARCH SITES IN AQUATIC SCIENCE EDUCATION -- RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESTRUCTURING EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS IN LIMNOLOGY -- Strengthening Limnology Within the University System -- Educating Responsible Citizens -- Educating Future Water Managers -- Educating Future Limnologists -- REFERENCES -- 5 Future of Limnology: Linking Education and Water Resource Management -- CAREERS IN LIMNOLOGY -- Private-Sector Employment Opportunities -- Public-Sector Employment Opportunities -- Career Opportunities at Research Centers -- Career Opportunities in Academia -- COLLABORATION AMONG UNIVERSITIES, GOVERNMENT AGENCIES, AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR -- Collaborative Teaching and Research -- Student Internships -- Intergovernmental Personnel Agreements Between Agencies and Universities -- Professional and Continuing Education -- ENHANCING THE INVOLVEMENT OF LIMNOLOGISTS IN WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT -- Certification of Professional Limnologists -- Federal Job Classification for Limnologists -- Coordination Among Professional Societies -- Public Education -- SUMMARY: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING LINKS BETWEEN LIMNOLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT -- REFERENCES -- Organizing Paradigms for the Study of Inland Aquatic Ecosystems -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- LAKES -- Lakes as Microcosms or Integrated Ecosystems -- Lakes as Experimental Systems.

Lakes as Chronicles of Natural History and Evolving Ecosystems -- Lakes as Chemical Reactors -- Lakes as Components of Integrated Watersheds -- Other Organizing Paradigms for Lake Studies -- RIVERS AND STREAMS -- Paradigms of Subdisciplines Within Stream Limnology -- The River Continuum Paradigm -- WETLANDS -- REFERENCES -- Linkages Among Diverse Aquatic Ecosystems: A Neglected Field of Study -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- DIFFICULTIES IN THE PURSUIT OF INTERECOSYSTEM STUDIES -- EXAMPLES OF INTERDISCIPLINARY AND INTERECOSYSTEM STUDIES -- Linkages Among Major Fields of Research -- Linkages Among Different Types of Aquatic Ecosystem -- DRAWBACKS TO FRAGMENTATION BY ECOSYSTEM -- IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ON THE LINKAGES AMONG AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- MECHANISMS FOR FOSTERING CLOSER TIES AMONG STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- Research -- Teaching -- CONCLUSION -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Training of Aquatic Ecosystem Scientists -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECOSYSTEM PERSPECTIVE -- UNDERPINNINGS OF THE ECOSYSTEM PERSPECTIVE IN EDUCATION -- FRAGMENTATION OF DISCIPLINES -- RESEARCH SYNERGISM WITH EDUCATION -- OPTIMAL CRITERIA FOR LIMNOLOGICAL EDUCATION -- A National Initiative: General Education -- A National Initiative: Coordinated Schools of Limnology -- Graduate Programs -- Coordination -- Recruiting and Placement Programs -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- Wetlands: An Essential Component of Curricula in Limnology -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- DESCRIPTION OF WETLANDS -- PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT -- ECOLOGICAL AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS -- HUMAN VALUES -- DEGRADATION AND DESTRUCTION OF WETLANDS -- WETLAND RESTORATION -- WETLAND CREATION -- WETLAND MANAGEMENT -- MAJOR QUESTIONS CONCERNING WETLANDS -- ACKNOWLEDGMENT -- REFERENCES -- Applied Aquatic Ecosystem Science -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION.

HUMAN IMPACTS ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- Rivers -- Lakes -- Wetlands -- TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH NEEDS -- SCIENTIFIC INFRASTRUCTURE -- MONITORING MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES -- REFERENCES -- Fundamental Research Questions in Inland Aquatic Ecosystem Science -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- INLAND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS -- FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS -- Understanding Time and Space -- Paleolimnology -- Importance of Winter -- Morning, Noon, and Night -- Living at the Interface -- Regional Scales, Spatial Heterogeneity and Ecosystem Linkages -- Ecological Significance of the Species -- Species, Niches and Ecosystem Function -- Intraspecies Genetic Variation -- Natural Water-A Chemical World -- Major Cations, Anions, and Alkalinity -- Effects of Many Different Constituents -- Detrital Organic Material -- Importance of Long-Range Transport of Constituents -- A Changing Climate -- Humans: A Keystone Species -- Fundamental Associations Between Humans and Aquatic Systems -- Defining the Roles Humans Play as the Keystone Species -- SIGNIFICANCE OF BASIC RESEARCH -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- The Role of Major Research Centers in the Study of Inland Aquatic Ecosystems -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- EXAMPLES OF CONTRIBUTIONS FROM RESEARCH CENTERS -- Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study -- Experimental Lakes Area -- Wisconsin -- Ecosystem Center at Woods Hole -- Lake Washington -- Coweeta Experimental Forest -- H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest -- CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES FOR RESEARCH CENTERS -- REFERENCES -- Bringing Biology Back into Water Quality Assessments -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND -- Federal Legislative Initiatives -- Federal Monitoring and Assessment -- Need for Cooperation Among Federal Agencies -- STRESSES ON BIOLOGICAL HEALTH OF INLAND WATERS -- Challenges of Assessing Biological Integrity -- Importance of Scale (Space and Time).

Importance of Seasonal Variations in Time -- Nonequilibrium Nature of Aquatic Systems and the Role of Disturbance -- Tools for Measuring Biological Integrity -- Structural Attributes -- Functional Attributes -- IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- REFERENCES -- APPENDIXES -- A Limnology Programs in U.S. Institutes of Higher Education: A Survey -- B Where Are the Limnologists? Surveys of Professional Societies and Journals -- C Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Staff -- Project Staff -- D Other Contributors to This Report -- Index.