Incorporating Science, Economics, and Sociology in Developing Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards in International Trade -- Copyright -- Preface -- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- Contents -- Overview -- CONFERENCE ORGANIZATION -- CURRENT INSTITUTIONS FOR MANAGING SPS ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE -- Background -- Provisions of the SPS Agreement -- DISCUSSION OF ISSUES RELATED TO SPS MANAGEMENT IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE -- Broadening Cultural Perspectives for Systematic Risk Analysis -- Science: The Challenges of Risk Assessment -- Economics: Measuring the Costs and Benefits of SPS Management Strategies -- Political Science: Establishing International Discipline While Preserving National Sovereignty -- SUMMARY -- Prospects for the Future -- 1 Historical and Social Science Perspectives on the Role of Risk Assessment and Science in Protecting... -- HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON PROTECTIONISM -- A PERSPECTIVE ON RISK ASSESSMENT -- THE IMPORTANCE OF ADJUSTMENT POLICIES -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- Part I Agricultural Trade, Risk Assessment, and the Role of Culturein Risk Management -- 2 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Risk Management in the Post-Uruguay Round Era: An Economic Perspective -- THE SPS AGREEMENT: ORIGIN AND PRINCIPAL PROVISIONS -- Origin of the SPS Agreement -- Principal Provisions of the SPS Agreement -- COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF SPS REGULATIONS -- IS THE SPS AGREEMENT CONGRUENT WITH EXECUTIVE BRANCH GUIDELINES? -- Costs -- Benefits -- Distributional Issues -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- 3 An Overview of Risk Assessment -- RISK AND TRADE BARRIERS -- WHAT IS RISK ASSESSMENT? -- Hazard Identification -- Dose-Response Assessment -- SELECTING TOXICOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS: WHAT DO WE EVALUATE? -- Exposure Assessment -- Risk Characterization- What Are the Consequences? Is There a Problem? -- DETERMINISTIC RISK ASSESSMENT -- PROBABILISTIC RISK ASSESSMENT.

PROTECTING HUMANS, PLANTS, AND WILDLIFE -- Human Health- Pesticide Residues in Food -- How Safe Is Our Food Supply in Terms of Pesticide Residues? -- Plants, Domestic Animals, and Wildlife -- Introduction of Exotic Species -- RISK ASSESSMENT OF GENETICALLY ENGINEERED ORGANISMS -- HOW CAN WE BE FOOLED? UNPROVABLE RISKS -- FUTURE PROBLEMS-SCIENTIFIC ARGUMENTS ABOUT RISK ASSESSMENT -- Individual versus Population-Level Effects -- Population Structure and Susceptibility -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- 4 Technological Risk and Cultures of Rationality -- DIMENSIONS OF CROSS-NATIONAL VARIANCE -- Framing -- Styles of Regulation -- Acceptable Evidence -- Forms of Expertise -- Nature of Regulatory Standards -- VARIETIES OF CULTURAL EXPLANATION -- The Role of Political Structure -- The Functionalist Approach -- Interpretive Approaches -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- Part II Political and Ecological Economy -- 5 Biological Impacts of Species Invasions: Implications for Policymakers -- IMPACT FROM AN ANTHROPOCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE -- CASE STUDY 1: THE GRAPE ROOT LOUSE PHYLLOXERA: THE IMPORTANCE OFRECOGNIZING AND REGULATING VECTORS -- VECTORS -- Identifying Patterns of Species Introductions and Impacts -- Using Vectors to Regulate Specific Risks -- IMPACT FROM AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE -- Measuring the Ecological Impact of Invaders -- Individuals -- Genetics -- Populations and Species -- Communities -- Ecosystems -- CASE STUDY 2: THE MOSQUITO FISH: WHEN ANTHROPOCENTRIC AND ECOLOGICALPERSPECTIVES CLASH -- PREDICTING OUTCOMES OF SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS -- Quantitative and Experimental Approaches to Identifying Potential Invaders -- Predicting the Impacts of Those Invaders -- CASE STUDY 3: THE CRAYFISH PLAGUE AND THE SIGNAL CRAYFISH: LIMITSTO PREDICTION WHEN SPECIES INTERACT... -- Indirect Effects of Invaders May Limit Predictability -- Assessing the Degree of Uncertainty.

SETTING PRIORITIES FOR MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE SPECIES -- CONCLUSIONS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- REFERENCES -- 6 RISK MANAGEMENT AND THE WORLD TRADING SYSTEM: REGULATING INTERNATIONALTRADE DISTORTIONS CAUSED BY... -- INTRODUCTION -- THE SPS AGREEMENT: MAJOR ELEMENTS -- The Exceptions -- SPS Levels and Measures That Are Stricter Than the International Standard -- SPS Measures That Are Weaker Than the International Standard -- INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS -- The Codex Alimentarius Commission -- The International Office of Epizootics -- International Plant Protection Convention -- Summary -- OTHER WTO AGREEMENTS: GATT 1994 AND THE TBT AGREEMENT -- THE SYSTEM AT WORK: THREE CASES -- EC Meat Hormones33 -- Australian Salmon -- Japanese Fruits and Nuts -- ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM AT WORK -- No "Race Toward the Bottom" or "Downward Harmonization" -- Internal Alignment of National SPS Policy Processes and Risk Levels -- International Standards: Little Impact -- International Standards: From Artificial Consensus to Conflict -- Expert Advice -- SUMMARY -- REFERENCES -- 7 ACCOUNTING FOR CONSUMERS' PREFERENCES IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE RULES -- SANITARY AND TECHNICAL BARRIERS -- National Regulations As Trade Barriers -- International Effects of National Regulations -- TECHNICAL AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AND DOMESTIC REGULATIONS -- Disagreement on Quality Attributes -- Different Conceptions of Risk -- Technical Regulations and Local Conditions -- Legal Differences -- Cultural Differences -- Ethical Concerns -- Mistrust in Science -- ACCOUNTING FOR CONSUMER CONCERNS -- Consumers' Values Matter -- ''Bad" Products Driving Out "Good" Products -- WHAT ARE THE SOLUTIONS FOR RECONCILING CONSUMER CONCERNS AND INTERNATIONALTRADE RULES? -- Consumer Concerns in the United States and Europe -- More "Sound Science" in the SPS Agreement -- Labeling -- Expanding GATT Criteria.

Can Economics Help? -- ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND THE SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES -- Scientific and Economic Criteria -- Assessing Consumers' Concerns -- More Economics in the Settlement of Disputes? -- CONCLUSIONS -- REFERENCES -- Part III Case Studies -- 8 Case Study 1: Meat Slaughtering and Processing Practices -- THE DANISH APPROACH TO FOOD SAFETY ISSUES RELATED TO PORK PRODUCTS -- DANISH CONSUMERS' PERSPECTIVES ON FOOD SAFETY -- Comparison with Sweden -- CONSUMER REQUIREMENTS OF DANISH MEAT -- Zoonotic Agents -- Residues of Antibiotics, Hormones, Pesticides, Heavy Metals, and Others -- WELFARE -- CONCLUSIONS -- AN UPDATE ON THE DANISH SALMONELLA REDUCTION PROGRAM -- Materials and Methods -- Results and Discussion -- Seropositive Meat Juice Samples -- Level 2 and 3 Herds -- New Initiatives -- Second-Opinion Team -- Level 3 Slaughter Fee -- REFERENCES -- INTERNATIONAL HARMONIZATION UNDER THE SPS AGREEMENT -- REFERENCES -- 9 Case Study 2: Plant Quarantines and Hass Avocados -- ROLE OF SCIENCE IN SOLVING PEST QUARANTINE PROBLEMS: HASS AVOCADOCASE STUDY -- METHODOLOGY -- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION -- Forced Infestations -- Natural Infestations -- CONCLUSIONS -- GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS -- REFERENCES -- THE HASS AVOCADO CASE: A POLITICAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE -- REFERENCE -- 10 Case Study 3: Genetically Modified Organisms -- AN OVERVIEW OF RISK ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES APPLIED TO GENETICALLYENGINEERED CROPS -- CONTAINMENT -- THE PRINCIPLE OF FAMILIARITY -- SMALL-SCALE RISK ASSESSMENT EXPERIMENTS -- MONITORING AND A PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH -- REFERENCES -- APPROACHES TO RISK AND RISK ASSESSMENT -- REFERENCES -- APPENDIXES -- Appendix A Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures -- Article 1: General Provisions -- Article 2: Basic Rights and Obligations -- Article 3: Harmonization -- Article 4: Equivalence.

Article 5: Assessment of Risk and Determination of the Appropriate Level of Sanitary or Phytosanitar... -- Article 6: Adaptation to Regional Conditions, Including Pest-or Disease-Free Areas and Areas of Low... -- Article 7: Transparency -- Article 8: Control, Inspection and Approval Procedures -- Article 9: Technical Assistance -- Article 10: Special and Differential Treatment -- Article 11: Consultations and Dispute Settlement -- Article 12: Administration -- Article 13: Implementation -- Article 14: Final Provisions -- ANNEX A: DEFINITIONS -- ANNEX B: TRANSPARENCY OF SANITARY AND PHYTOSANITARY REGULATIONS -- Publication of Regulations -- Enquiry Points -- Notification Procedures -- General Reservations -- ANNEX C: CONTROL, INSPECTION AND APPROVAL PROCEDURES -- Appendix B Conference Program -- INCORPORATING SCIENCE, ECONOMICS, SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICS IN SANITARYAND PHYTOSANITARY STANDARDS IN I... -- January 25, 1999 -- January 26, 1999 -- CASE STUDY 1: MEAT SLAUGHTERING AND PROCESSING PRACTICES (INCLUDESVETERINARY EQUIVALENCE AND HAACP) -- CASE STUDY 2: PLANT QUARANTINES AND HASS AVOCADOS -- Case Study 3: Genetically Modified Organisms -- January 27, 1999 -- DISCUSSION QUESTIONS -- Session III: Case Study Discussions -- Session V: Resolving Current SPS Trade Disputes and Establishing a Basis for Defusing Future Conflicts -- Appendix C Program Participants -- Appendix D Conference Participants.