Responding to Changes in Sea Level -- Copyright -- Preface -- Contents -- Executive Summary -- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -- Conclusions -- Recommendations -- 1 Relative Mean Sea Level -- PAST CHANCES IN RELATIVE MEAN SEA LEVEL -- Geologic Record of Sea Level -- Sea Level Rise in the Twentieth Century -- Range of Sea Level Estimates Available -- METHODS OF OBSERVING RELATIVE MEAN SEA LEVEL -- Two Examples -- 2 Assessment of Changes in Relative Mean Sea Level -- ESTIMATES OF FUTURE MEAN SEA LEVEL RISE -- SCENARIOS USED IN THIS REPORT -- 3 Relative Sea Level Rise Effects And Responses -- 4 Affected Hydrodynamic Processes -- STORM SURGE -- TIDAL RANGES AND CURRENTS -- WAVES -- Case A -- Case B -- 5 Effects of Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Zone -- SANDY COASTLINES -- Geologic Indicators -- Historical Records -- Techniques of Projecting Shoreline Retreat Due to Sea Level Rise -- Historical Trend Analysis -- The Bruun Rule -- Sediment Budget Approach -- Dynamic Equilibrium Model -- BLUFF AND CLIFF RETREAT -- TIDAL INLETS -- WETLANDS -- Back-Barrier Marshes -- Estuarine (Brackish) Marshes -- Tidal Freshwater Marshes -- Processes of Marsh Loss with Sea Level Rise -- Human-Induced Changes -- Prospects for Wetlands -- 6 Alternative Responses -- COASTAL STRUCTURES AND PROTECTIVE TECHNIQUES -- Groins -- Bulkheads and Sea Walls -- Revetments -- Beach Nourishment -- Method I -- Method II -- Beach Nourishment with Groins -- Perched Beach -- Offshore Breakwaters -- Storm Surge Barriers -- Other Devices -- Engineering Case Studies -- Galveston, Texas -- The Netherlands -- Miami Beach, Florida -- Harrison County, Mississippi -- Tybee Island, Georgia -- Terminal Island, California -- RETREAT -- Mechanism of Retreat -- Engineering, Geologic, and Economic Considerations -- CONTROLLING THE RATE OF SEA LEVEL RISE.

7 Assessment of Response Strategies for Specific Facilities and Systems -- AIRPORTS -- LEVEES -- Existing Levees -- New Levees -- SEDIMENTATION OF SEAPORTS AND HARBORS, NAVIGATION CHANNELS, TURNING BASINS, AND DOCKING AREAS -- BREAKWATERS, SEA WALLS, AND JETTIES -- NAVIGATION GATES -- PIERS AND WHARVES -- DRY DOCKS AND WET DOCKS -- HIGHWAYS, RAILROADS, BRIDGES, AND VEHICULAR TUNNELS -- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS -- POWER PLANTS -- PIPELINES -- FLOODING AND STORM DRAINS -- HOTELS AND MALLS -- RESIDENTIAL CENTERS -- WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS -- Perched Fresh Water -- Aquifers -- Freshwater Intakes from Upstream Regions of Estuaries -- LANDFILLS AND WASTE DISPOSAL SITES -- OFFSHORE PLATFORMS AND ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS -- 8 Decisions for the Future -- STRATEGIC DECISIONS -- Economic Factors -- Long-Term Costs -- Design Life Versus Remedial Measures -- Social Factors -- Degree of Risk from Sea Level Rise -- Maintenance Capability -- ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS -- Geological/Geographical Factors -- NATIONAL POLICY DECISIONS -- Coping with these trends will require -- 9 Conclusions and Recommendations -- CONCLUSIONS -- RECOMMENDATIONS -- References -- Appendix A Summary of Committee Expertise -- Appendix B Acknowledgments -- Index.