Preface to the Series -- Preface to this Volume -- Contents -- 1. Phylogenetic Relationships among the Major Lineages of Modern Elasmobranchs -- 1.1 INTRODUCTION -- 1.1.2 A Brief History of Elasmobranch Higher Systematics -- 1.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS -- 1.2.1 Choice of Taxa -- 1.2.2 Choice of Genes -- 1.2.3 Laboratory Protocols -- 1.2.4 Analysis -- 1.2.4.1 Parsimony signal -- 1.2.4.2 Partition homogeneity tests -- 1.2.4.3 Saturation analysis -- 1.2.4.4 Base composition -- 1.2.4.5 Codon usage bias -- 1.2.4.6 Combined analysis -- 1.2.4.7 Likelihood approaches incorporating rate variation -- 1.3 RESULTS -- 1.3.1 Parsimony Analysis -- 1.3.2. Partition Homogeneity Tests -- 1.3.3. Saturation Analyses -- 1.3.4. Base Composition -- 1.3.5. Codon Usage -- 1.3.6. Combined Analyses -- 1.3.7. Likelihood Approaches -- 1.4 DISCUSSION -- 1.4.1 Signal Heterogeneity Across Different Levels of Representation of the Combined Mitochondrial and Nuclear Data Set -- 1.4.2 Alternative ways of "explaining" Anomalous Patterns in the Data -- 1.4.3 Contrasting the Molecular Phylogeny with Previous Hypotheses -- 1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- 1.6 LITERATURE CITED -- 2. Population and Reproductive Genetics in Chondrichthyes -- 2.1 MOLECULAR MARKERS AND STOCK STRUCTURE IN FISHES -- 2.2 ALLOZYMES -- 2.3 MITOCHONDRIAL DNA -- 2.4 DNA MICROSATELLITES -- 2.5 FORENSICS AND IDENTIFICATION OF CRYPTIC SPECIES -- 2.6 PHILOPATRY AND SEX-BIASED DISPERSAL -- 2.7 GENETICS AND REPRODUCTIVE ECOLOGY IN CHONDRICHTHYES -- 2.8 LITERATURE CITED -- 3. Reproductive Evolution of Chondrichthyans -- 3.1 INTRODUCTION -- 3.1.1 Chondrichthyan Reproduction -- 3.1.2 Oviparity -- 3.1.3 Yolk-sac Viviparity -- 3.1.4 Histotrophy -- 3.1.5 Oophagy -- 3.1.6 Placental Viviparity -- 3.1.7 The Plesiomorphic Reproductive State -- 3.2 PHYLOGENETIC PATTERNS -- 3.2.1 Neoselachii -- 3.2.2 Cohort Batoidea.

3.2.3 Superorder Squalomorphii -- 3.2.4 Superoder Galeomorphii -- 3.3 MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PATTERNS -- 3.3.1 Oviducal Gland -- 3.3.2 Uterus -- 3.3.3 Claspers -- 3.3.4 Urea Retention -- 3.4 EVOLUTIONARY IMPLICATIONS -- 3.4.1 Oviparity -- 3.4.2 Parsimony -- 3.5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- 3.6 REFERENCES -- APPENDIX 3.1 -- 4. Reproduction in Fisheries Science -- 4.1 INTRODUCTION -- 4.2 TERMINOLOGY AND DESCRIPTION OF REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM -- 4.2.1 Female Reproductive System -- 4.2.2 Male Reproductive System -- 4.2.3 Maturity and Ovarian Cycle -- 4.2.4 Pregnancy, Maternity and Parturition Frequency -- 4.3 LIFE HISTORY OF GALEORHINUS GALEUS -- 4.4 SAMPLING GALEORHINUS GALEUS -- 4.4.1 Capture of Sharks -- 4.4.2 Biological Sampling -- 4.5 STATISTICAL METHODS -- 4.5.1 Determining Litter Size and Sex Ratio of Embryos -- 4.5.2 Determining Period of Gestation and Growth of Embryos -- 4.5.3 Determining Period of Ovarian Cycle -- 4.5.4 Determining Size-at-maturity and Size-at-maternity -- 4.5.5 Determining Total Body Mass at Size -- 4.6 APPLICATION OF METHODS TO GALEORHINUS GALEUS -- 4.6.1 Litter Size and Sex Ratio of Embryos -- 4.6.2 Period of Gestation and Growth of Embryos -- 4.6.3 Ovarian Cycle -- 4.6.4 Female Maturity Ogives -- 4.6.5 Female Maternity Ogives -- 4.6.6 Male Maturity Ogives -- 4.6.7 Total Body Mass at Size -- 4.7 CONCLUSIONS FOR GALEORHINUS GALEUS -- 4.8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- 4.9 LITERATURE CITED -- 5. Elasmobranch Courtship and Mating Behavior -- 5.1 INTRODUCTION -- 5.2 REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES AND BEHAVIOR -- 5.2.1 Indicators of Male Sexual Activity -- 5.2.1.1 Sperm and sperm delivery -- 5.2.1.2 Claspers -- 5.2.1.3 Sexual biting and holding -- 5.2.2 Indicators of Female Sexual Activity -- 5.2.2.1 Sperm and ova -- 5.2.2.2 Oviducts and fertilization -- 5.2.2.3 Vagina, cloaca and mating -- 5.2.3 Elasmobranch Mating Systems.

5.2.3.1 Electrosensory system -- 5.2.3.2 Neuroendocrine control of mating -- 5.2.3.3 Energetics of mating sharks -- 5.2.3.4 Polyandry, polygyny and mating systems -- 5.3 REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR -- 5.3.1 Mating in Captive Elasmobranchs -- 5.3.2 Mating in Wild Elasmobranchs -- 5.3.2.1 Sexual segregation -- 5.3.2.2 Wild Mating: Observations from above the sea's surface -- 5.3.2.3 Wild Mating: Observations from below the sea's surface -- 5.4 RECENT TECHNIQUES AND RESULTS IN STUDYING GINGLYMOSTOMA CIRRATUM MATING BEHAVIOR -- 5.4.1 Less-invasive Sampling and Tagging -- 5.4.1.1 Tagging - spear gun to hoop net -- 5.4.1.2 Results 1991 - 2003 tagging -- 5.4.2 Video recording and 'Crittercam' -- 5.4.3 Telemetry and Movements During Mating Season -- 5.5 THE AUTHORS' CURRENT RESEARCH INTO SHARK MATING BEHAVIOR -- 5.5.1 Male Helping Behaviors -- 5.5.2 Triaenodon obesus -- 5.6 THE EMERGING BEHAVIOR TEMPLATE -- 5.7 CONCLUSIONS -- 5.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- 5.9 LITERATURE CITED -- APPENDIX 5.1 -- Behaviors of Females -- Behaviors of Males -- Behaviors of Males and Females -- 6. The Testis and Spermatogenesis -- 6.1 INTRODUCTION -- 6.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM -- 6.3 THE MALE HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-GONADAL (HPG) AXIS -- 6.4 THE TESTIS -- 6.4.1 Gross Anatomy -- 6.4.2 Cell Types -- 6.4.2.1 Germ cells -- 6.4.2.2 Sertoli cells -- 6.4.2.3 Leydig cells -- 6.4.2.4 Other somatic cell types -- 6.5 SPERMATOCYSTS: THE PRIMARY GERMINAL UNITS -- 6.6 THE SPERMATOGENIC PROGRESSION -- 6.6.1 Spermatogonial Stage (Premeiotic) Spermatocysts -- 6.6.3 Spermatocyte Stage (Meiotic) Spermatocysts -- 6.6.4 Spermatid Stage (Postmeiotic) Spermatocysts -- 6.6.5 Degenerate Spermatocysts -- 6.7 SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF SPERMATOGENESIS WITHIN THE TESTIS -- 6.7.1 Compound (Rajid, e.g. Skate) -- 6.7.2 Radial (Lamniformes, e.g. Mako, White Sharks).

6.7.3 Linear (Squalomorphs, Galeomorph, Carcharhinid, e.g. Dogfish, Horn & Sandbar Sharks, Respectively) -- 6.8 STAGE-BY-STAGE ANALYSIS OF SPERMATOGENESIS -- 6.9 STEROIDOGENESIS -- 6.9.1 Steroidogenic Enzymes -- 6.9.2 Steroid Production -- 6.10 INTRATESTICULAR STEROID RECEPTORS -- 6.10.1 Estrogen Receptors -- 6.10.2 Androgen Receptors -- 6.10.3 Progesterone Receptors -- 6.10.4 Non-receptor Steroid Binding Protein -- 6.10.4 Intratesticular Vasculature -- 6.11 SEASONALITY -- 6.12 TOXICOLOGY -- 6.13 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES -- 6.14 ACKNOWLEGMENTS -- 6.15 LITERATURE CITED -- 7. Chondrichthyan Spermatozoa and Phylogeny -- 7.1 INTRODUCTION -- 7.1.1 General -- 7.1.2 Subclass Holocephali -- 7.1.3 Subclass Elasmobranchii -- 7.2 ULTRASTRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHONDRICHTHYAN SPERM -- 7.2.1 Species Examined -- 7.2.2 Spermiogenesis -- 7.2.3 Ultrastructural Characteristics of the Spermatozoa -- 7.2.4 Seasonal Changes in Testicular Structure -- 7.3 SPERMATOCYSTS, SPERMATOZEUGMATA AND SPERMATOPHORES -- 7.4 MOTILITY -- 7.5 PHYLOGENETIC CONSIDERATIONS -- 7.5.1 Phenetic, UPGMA Clustering -- 7.5.2 Spermatozoal Synapomorphies of Chondrichthyes (Holocephali and Elasmobranchii) -- 7.5.3 Distinctions between Holocephalan and Elasmobranch Sperm -- 7.5.4 Distinctive Characters of Elasmobranch Sperm -- 7.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- 7.7 LITERATURE CITED -- 8. The Elasmobranch Ovary -- 8.1 INTRODUCTION -- 8.2 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS -- 8.3 THE ADULT OVARY -- 8.3.1 Gross Ovarian Morphology and the Epigonal Organ -- 8.3.2 Folliculogenesis and the Follicular Epithelium -- 8.3.3 The Oocyte and Ovulation -- 8.3.4 Pre- and Post-ovulatory Follicles: Corpora Atretica and Corpora Lutea -- 8.4 CONTROL OF OVARIAN CYCLICITY -- 8.4.1 Hypothalamic and Pituitary Relationships -- 8.4.2 Ovarian Cycles -- 8.4.2.1 The skates and rays -- 8.4.2.2 The sharks: Oviparous species.

8.4.2.3 The sharks: Viviparous species -- 8.5 STEROID SYNTHESIS -- 8.5.1 Second Messengers and the Control of Ovarian Steroidogenesis -- 8.6 REGULATION OF VITELLOGENESIS -- 8.7 GENERAL EFFECTS OF STEROIDS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT -- 8.8 ENDOCRINE-IMMUNE SYSTEM INTERACTIONS -- 8.9 FISHERY MANAGEMENT: THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON REPRODUCTION -- 8.10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- 8.11 LITERATURE CITED -- 9. Endocrine Control of the Female Reproductive Tract -- 9.1 THE CHONDRICHTHYAN REPRODUCTIVE TRACT (FIG. 9.1) -- 9.2 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS -- 9.3 ADULT MORPHOLOGY AND FUNCTION -- 9.3.1 The Fimbria and Ostium -- 9.3.2 The Oviducal Gland (Fig. 9.2) -- 9.3.3 Isthmus -- 9.3.4 The Uterine Region -- 9.3.5 The Uterine Cervix -- 9.4 ENDOCRINE CONTROL OF THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT 9.4-9.7 -- 9.4.1 The Oviducal Gland -- 9.4.2 The Isthmus -- 9.4.3 The Uterine Region -- 9.4.5 Functional Roles of Progesterone and Estradiol in Embryo-fetal Nutrition -- 9.4.4 The Cervix -- 9.5 SUMMARY (FIG. 9.7) -- 9.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- 9.7 LITERATURE CITED -- 10. Oviducal Glands in Chondrichthyans -- 10.1 INTRODUCTION -- 10.2 CLUB ZONE -- 10.3 PAPILLARY ZONE -- 10.4 BAFFLE ZONE -- 10.5 TERMINAL ZONE -- 10.6 DIVERSITY OF OVIDUCAL GLAND MORPHOLOGY AND TERTIARY EGG ENVELOPE -- 10.7 HOLOCEPHALON OVIDUCAL GLANDS -- 10.8 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE EGG CASE OF SCYLIORHINUS CANICULA -- 10.8.1 Properties of the Egg Case of Scyliorhinus canicula -- 10.8.2 Extrusion of the Egg Case in Scyliorhinus canicula -- 10.8.3 What Holds the Ribbons and Lamellae of the Egg Case Together? -- 10.9 OVIDUCAL GLAND IN RAJA EGLANTERIA -- 10.10 HAIR FORMATION IN THE TERMINAL ZONE -- 10.11 SPERM STORAGE IN THE TERMINAL ZONE -- 10.12 CONCLUSIONS -- 10.13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- 10.14 LITERATURE CITED -- 11. Alkaline Glands and Clasper Glands of Batoids -- 11.1 INTRODUCTION -- 11.2 ALKALINE GLANDS -- 11.2.1 Background.

11.2.2 Morphology.