Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgement -- Editor biographies -- List of contributors -- Chapter 1 Paper-based biosensors: overview from past to future -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Classification of paper-based biosensors -- 1.2.1 Microfluidic biosensors -- 1.2.2 Dipstick tests -- 1.2.3 Lateral flow assay -- 1.3 Overview of the microfluidic devices from the past -- 1.3.1 Overview of colorimetric biosensors -- 1.3.2 Overview of fluorescence-based biosensors -- 1.3.3 Overview of electrochemical biosensors -- 1.4 Paper-based microfluidics/biosensors-future perspective -- 1.5 Conclusion -- Conflict of interest -- Acknowledgement -- References -- Chapter 2 Paper-based biosensor as an early diagnostic system in medical sciences -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Biosensors: as advancement in medical sciences -- 2.1.2 Biosensors in healthcare -- 2.2 Paper-based biosensors -- 2.2.1 Properties of paper as a sensory device -- 2.2.2 Advantages and properties of paper-based diagnostic devices -- 2.3 Types of paper-based devices -- 2.3.1 Dipstick type paper-based biosensor -- 2.3.2 Paper devices based on LFA -- 2.3.3 Microfluidic paper-based analytical device -- 2.3.4 Smart accessories-based paper bio-analyser -- 2.4 Quantitative analysis via paper-based biosensors -- 2.4.1 Colorimetric analysis -- 2.4.2 Electrochemical detection -- 2.4.3 Electrical conductivity -- 2.4.4 Chemiluminescent and electrochemiluminescent detection -- 2.5 Applications of paper-based biosensors -- 2.5.1 Health diagnostics -- 2.5.2 Food quality control -- 2.5.3 Environment monitoring -- 2.6 Challenges in paper-based diagnostic devices -- 2.7 Recent advancements and developments -- 2.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3 Fabrication of paper-based immunochromatography assay -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Paper as a platform for POC diagnosis -- 3.2.1 Paper as a substrate and other alternatives.

3.3 Paper-based immunoassay -- 3.3.1 Dipstick examination -- 3.3.2 Lateral flow assay -- 3.3.3 Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) -- 3.4 Components of LFA -- 3.4.1 Formats -- 3.4.2 Molecules of biorecognition -- 3.4.3 Labels -- 3.4.4 Detection system -- 3.5 Lateral flow in immunoassay application -- 3.5.1 Clinical applications -- 3.5.2 Applications for food safety -- 3.5.3 Environmental application -- 3.5.4 Veterinary applications -- 3.6 New challenges -- 3.7 Future developing directions -- References -- Chapter 4 Fabrication of surface-enhanced Raman scattering based lateral flow assay for disease diagnosis -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering -- 4.2.1 Fabrication of SERS tags for use in the field of medical science -- 4.3 Fabrication of SERS-based LFIA -- 4.3.1 Step I-LFIA preparation -- 4.3.2 Step II-SERS tags preparation -- 4.3.3 Step III-sandwich of these two to precede diagnosis -- 4.4 SERS-based LFIA approaches -- 4.4.1 SERS-based pathogen detection methods -- 4.4.2 Cancer detection -- 4.4.3 Detection of respiratory disorders -- 4.4.4 Protein analysis for Alzheimer disease biomarkers -- 4.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 5 Design and fabrication of tag/probe-based and label-free paper-based devices -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Paper types -- 5.2.1 Nitrocellulose membrane -- 5.2.2 Bioactive paper -- 5.2.3 Glossy paper -- 5.3 Tags based paper devices -- 5.4 Non-labels/non-tag-based paper devices -- 5.5 Fabrication and patterning -- 5.5.1 Two-dimensional shaping/cutting of paper -- 5.5.2 Patterning hydrophilic/hydrophobic contrasts on paper -- 5.6 Applications of paper-based devices -- 5.7 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6 Development of aptamer-based lateral flow assays -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Aptamers -- 6.3 Aptamer versus antibody -- 6.4 Aptamer synthesis.

6.5 Aptamer modification and conjugation -- 6.6 Aptamer-based LFAs -- 6.6.1 Competitive format -- 6.6.2 Sandwich format -- 6.7 Developed aptamers for detection and diagnosis -- 6.8 Other applications of aptamers -- 6.8.1 Therapeutic application -- 6.8.2 Drug delivery system -- 6.8.3 Environmental pollution monitoring -- 6.8.4 Biosensors applications -- 6.9 Summary -- Conflicts of interest -- References -- Chapter 7 Paper-based diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 SARS-CoV-2 -- 7.3 Lateral flow assay -- 7.3.1 Biological reagents in LFAs -- 7.3.2 Labels for ICT assay -- 7.4 Principle of LFA -- 7.5 LFA-based diagnosis of SARS - Cov-2 -- 7.6 Discussion -- 7.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 8 Development of paper-based assay for detection of miRNA in various diseases -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 MicroRNA and its role -- 8.3 The involvement of microRNAs in disease -- 8.4 Different miRNA detection methods -- 8.4.1 Electrochemical detection of miRNA -- 8.4.2 Optical detection of miRNA -- 8.4.3 Fluorescent detection of miRNA -- 8.4.4 Colorimetric detection of miRNA -- 8.5 Future prospective paper-based assay for detection of miRNA -- 8.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9 PCR and other nucleic acid amplification technique based lateral flow assay for detection of the infectious agents -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Polymerase chain reactions -- 9.2.1 Detection methods for PCR products -- 9.3 Other PCR techniques -- 9.4 Other nucleic acid amplification techniques -- 9.4.1 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification -- 9.4.2 Nucleic acid sequence based amplification -- 9.4.3 Recombinase polymerase amplification -- 9.4.4 Rolling circle amplification -- 9.4.5 Strand displacement amplification -- 9.4.6 Multiple displacement amplification -- 9.4.7 Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats -- 9.5 Lateral flow assay.

9.5.1 Principle and structure of LFA -- 9.6 PCR and other nucleic acid amplification technique based LFA -- 9.7 Pros and cons of PCR and other NAATs based LFA -- 9.8 Applications of PCR-based LFA -- 9.9 Future aspects -- References -- Chapter 10 Plasmonic thermal based lateral flow assay for detection and quantification of antibody/antigen -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Plasmonic thermal sensing LFA -- 10.3 Advancement of LFA -- 10.3.1 SERS enhanced signal -- 10.3.2 Sensitivity enhancement based on sample pretreatment -- 10.3.3 Sensitivity enhancement based on sample enrichment -- 10.3.4 Sensitivity enhancement based on the change of flow rate -- 10.3.5 Sensitivity enhancement based on NC membrane size change -- 10.3.6 Sensitivity enhancement based on dual AuNPs -- 10.3.7 Sensitivity enhancement based on enzymatic amplification -- 10.3.8 Sensitivity enhancement based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering -- 10.3.9 Sensitivity enhancement based on photothermal methods -- 10.4 Thermal contrast amplification -- 10.4.1 Limitation -- 10.5 Thermophotonic lock-in imaging -- 10.5.1 Limitation -- 10.6 Photothermal laser speckle imaging -- 10.6.1 Limitation -- 10.7 Advantages of LFA -- 10.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 11 State-of-the-art of paper-based technology and challenges in its commercialization -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 State-of-the-art of paper-based biosensors -- 11.2.1 Recent trends in PBBs -- 11.2.2 Fabrication and printing procedures -- 11.2.3 Utilize nanoparticles and nanomaterials in PBBs -- 11.2.4 Detection of target antigen using PBBs -- 11.2.5 Application of PBBs for clinical diagnostics -- 11.2.6 Complementary use of paper-based devices -- 11.3 Challenges in commercialization of PPBs -- 11.3.1 Current status of paper-based biosensing devices -- 11.3.2 Assessment of performance of paper-based biosensing devices.

11.3.3 Manufacturing and commercial issues -- 11.3.4 Future perspectives to improve paper, design and biosensing -- 11.3.5 Challenges and visualization -- 11.4 Conclusion -- Conflicts of interest -- References -- Chapter 12 Sensing technologies used in microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Components of microfluidic devices -- 12.3 Detection techniques, separation methods and applications of microfluidic devices -- 12.4 Customization of devices for specific applications -- 12.4.1 For cancer -- 12.4.2 C-reactive protein -- 12.4.3 For virus detection -- 12.4.4 For liver function -- 12.4.5 For immune sensor -- 12.5 Paper as a platform for POC diagnostics -- 12.5.1 Paper and other porous membranes -- 12.5.2 Conventional paper-based point-of-care assays: dipsticks and lateral flow assays -- 12.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 13 Integration of paper-based analytical tools with smartphones and IOMT -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 IoMT communications and devices -- 13.3 Applications of IoMT -- 13.3.1 Real-time health monitoring -- 13.3.2 Personal emergency response systems -- 13.4 Paper-based devices with smartphones and IoMT -- 13.5 Various sensing mechanisms explored in IoMT and smartphone analysis assisted paper devices -- 13.5.1 Colorimetric sensing -- 13.5.2 Electrochemical sensing -- 13.5.3 Fluorescence sensing -- 13.6 Challenges, limitations, and future scope -- 13.6.1 Cost of servicing and maintenance -- 13.6.2 Power consumption -- 13.6.3 Standardization -- 13.6.4 Data security and privacy -- 13.6.5 Scalability -- 13.6.6 Identification -- 13.6.7 Discovering new diseases -- 13.6.8 Environmental impact -- 13.7 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 14 The futuristic paradigm shift in the field of biosensing applications -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Types of biosensor -- 14.2.1 Electrochemical biosensors.

14.2.2 Optical biosensors.