CONTENTS -- Foreword by Sir Keith Peters -- Preface by Gilbert Thompson -- Acknowledgements -- Contributors -- Chapter 1 The Discovery of Insulin Robert Tattersall -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 The Pancreas and Diabetes -- 1.3 Banting and Macleod9 -- 1.4 The First Clinical Test -- 1.5 The Nobel Prize -- 1.6 The Long-term Impact of the Discovery -- References -- Chapter 2 The Discovery of the Cure for Pernicious Anaemia, Vitamin B12 A. Victor Hoffbrand -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Brief Biographies -- 2.2.1 George Whipple -- 2.2.2 George Minot -- 2.2.3 William Murphy -- 2.3 The Medical Problem -- 2.4 Possible Mechanisms -- 2.4.1 The nutritional deficiency concept -- 2.4.2 Why liver therapy worked -- 2.5 Subsequent Research -- 2.5.1 Isolation of vitamin B12 -- 2.5.2 Extrinsic and intrinsic factors -- 2.5.3 Discovery of folic acid -- 2.5.4 Two vitamins -- 2.5.5 Vitamin B12/folate interactions -- 2.5.6 Neurological damage -- 2.5.7 Systemic effects of vitamin and folate deficiencies -- 2.6 Impact of the Discovery of Vitamin B12 on Medical Practice -- References -- Chapter 3 The Discovery of Penicillin Eric Sidebottom -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Biographical Sketches10 -- 3.2.1 Alexander Fleming -- 3.2.1.1 Education and career -- 3.2.1.2 The antibiotic revolution and the Fleming myth -- 3.2.1.3 The man and his achievements -- 3.2.2 Howard Florey -- 3.2.2.1 Move to England -- 3.2.2.2 Cambridge and early work on lysozyme -- 3.2.2.3 Chair of Pathology in Oxford and the development of penicillin -- 3.2.2.4 Recognition and its rewards -- 3.2.3 Ernst Chain -- 3.2.3.1 Move to Britain -- 3.2.3.2 Moves to and from Rome -- 3.3 Steps in the Discovery and Development of Penicillin -- 3.4 The Impact of the Introduction of Penicillin into Clinical Practice -- 3.5 From Triumph to Tragedy? -- 3.6 The Creation of the Fleming Myth.

3.7 Allocation of Credit Due and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4 The Introduction of Cardiac Catheterisation Tony Seed -- 4.1 Prologue -- 4.2 Introduction -- 4.3 Biographical Background of the Laureates -- 4.3.1 Werner Forssmann -- 4.3.2 André Cournand -- 4.3.3 Dickinson Richards -- 4.4 The Problem: Cardiopulmonary Physiology and Clinical Investigation of the Heart 80 Years Ago -- 4.5 Description of the Research -- 4.6 Impact of Cardiac Catheterisation on Medical Science -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 5 The Discovery of the Structure of DNA James Scott and Gilbert Thompson -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Brief Biographies of the Major Protagonists -- 5.2.1 Francis Crick -- 5.2.2 James Watson -- 5.2.3 Maurice Wilkins -- 5.2.4 Rosalind Franklin -- 5.3 Early Discoveries that Paved the Way to Unravelling the Structure of DNA -- 5.4 Complementary Approaches to Analysing the Structure of DNA in the 1950s -- 5.4.1 Model building at the Cavendish and X-ray diffraction at King's -- 5.4.2 The wrong model -- 5.4.3 The correct model -- 5.5 Impact of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA on Medical Science -- 5.5.1 Mendelian genetics -- 5.5.2 The HapMap Project -- 5.5.3 Human history -- 5.5.4 The genomic basis of common diseases and traits -- 5.5.5 Somatic cell genomics and cancer -- 5.5.6 Diagnosis and treatment -- 5.6 The Future -- References -- Chapter 6 The Interpretation of the Genetic Code John MacDermot and Ellis Kempner -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 The Scientific Revolution in Medicine 1770-1970 -- 6.3 Discovery of the Genetic Code -- 6.4 Implications of the Genetic Code for Clinical Medicine -- References -- Chapter 7 The Discovery of Neuropeptides and Radioimmunoassay of Peptide Hormones Jaimini Cegla and Stephen Bloom -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Background of the Laureates -- 7.2.1 Roger Guillemin -- 7.2.2 Andrew Schally.

7.2.3 Rosalyn Yalow -- 7.3 Discoveries Concerning the Peptide Hormone Production of the Brain -- 7.3.1 The elusive link between the hypothalamus and pituitary -- 7.3.2 Identification of the first hypothalamic hormone: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) -- 7.3.3 Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) -- 7.3.4 Somatostatin -- 7.3.5 Endorphins -- 7.4 The Development of Radioimmunoassays of Peptide Hormones -- 7.4.1 Challenges of peptide hormone measurement -- 7.4.2 The basis of radioimmunoassay -- 7.4.3 The development of radioimmunoassay -- 7.4.4 Application of radioimmunoassay -- 7.4.5 Radioimmunoassay and peptides of the brain -- References -- Chapter 8 The Development of Computer-Assisted Tomography Adrian M. K. Thomas -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Brief Biographical Sketches of the Laureates -- 8.2.1 Allan MacLeod Cormack (1924-1998) -- 8.2.2 Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield FRS (1919-2004) -- 8.3 The Medical Problem or Scientific Question -- 8.4 A Description of the Research that was Undertaken to Provide the Solution -- 8.4.1 Mathematical basis of CT scanning -- 8.4.2 Roles of EMI and the Department of Health -- 8.4.3 Neuroradiological applications of CT scanning -- 8.5 The Nature and Scale of the Impact of these Discoveries on Medical Science -- References -- Chapter 9 The Discovery of Prostaglandins Rod Flower -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Lipids: Just Fats? -- 9.3 Bergström's Work on Prostaglandin Purification -- 9.4 Bergström and Samuelsson's Work on Prostaglandin Biosynthesis -- 9.5 Samuelsson's Work on the Role of Oxygen in the Biosynthetic Reaction -- 9.6 Vane's Work with Prostaglandins -- 9.7 The Discovery of 'RCS' -- 9.8 The Aspirin 'Enigma' -- 9.9 The Detection and Isolation of an Intermediate in Prostaglandin Biosynthesis and RCS Characterised -- 9.10 Impact of these Discoveries on Medical Science -- References.

Chapter 10 The Antibody Problem and the Generation of Monoclonal Antibodies Herman Waldmann and Celia P. Milstein -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Biographical Details of the Laureates -- 10.2.1 Niels Jerne -- 10.2.2 Georges Köhler -- 10.2.3 César Milstein -- 10.3 The Antibody Problem -- 10.4 Cell Fusion -- 10.5 Why is the Discovery Important? -- 10.5.1 The antibody problem -- 10.5.2 Impact of diagnostics and research tools -- 10.5.3 Therapeutic antibodies -- 10.6 Commercialisation of Monoclonal Antibodies -- 10.7 Translational Research -- References -- Chapter 11 The Discovery of the LDL Receptor and Its Role in Cholesterol Metabolism Gilbert Thompson -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Biographical Background of the Laureates -- 11.2.1 Joseph Goldstein -- 11.2.2 Michael Brown -- 11.3 The Problem: Familial Hypercholesterolaemia 40 Years Ago -- 11.4 The Solution: Discovery of the LDL Receptor and its Partial or Complete Absence in FH -- 11.5 The Scavenger Receptor and Atherosclerosis -- 11.6 Stimulation of Receptor-mediated Catabolism of LDL by Statins -- 11.7 Analysis of the LDL Receptor Gene and Mutations Causing FH -- 11.8 Impact of these Discoveries on Medical Science -- References -- Chapter 12 The Invention of the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Use of Site-Directed Mutagenesis Anne K. Soutar -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Michael Smith (1932-2000) -- 12.2.1 Biographical sketch: early life and education* -- 12.2.2 From postdoctoral fellow to independent scientist -- 12.2.3 Work that led to the Nobel Prize -- 12.3 Kary Mullis (1944- ) -- 12.3.1 Biographical sketch: early life and education -- 12.3.2 Joining the Cetus Corporation: work that led to the Nobel Prize -- 12.4 How these Nobel Prize-winning Discoveries Changed Medicine -- 12.4.1 The impact of PCR and site-directed mutagenesis on medical practice.

12.4.2 An example of how PCR and site-directed mutagenesis changed research into inherited disease -- References -- Chapter 13 The Discovery of the Pathophysiological Role of Nitric Oxide in Blood Vessels Keith M. Channon -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Biographical Backgrounds of the Laureates -- 13.2.1 Robert Furchgott -- 13.2.2 Ferid Murad -- 13.2.3 Louis Ignarro -- 13.3 Identification of Endothelium-Derived Relaxing Factor -- 13.4 Physiological Significance of Nitric Oxide -- 13.5 Therapeutic Consequences of the Discovery of the Role of Nitric Oxide -- References -- Chapter 14 The Discovery of Helicobacter Pylori Chris Hawkey -- 14.1 Synopsis -- 14.2 Biographies -- 14.2.1 Robin Warren -- 14.2.1.1 Family -- 14.2.1.2 Education -- 14.2.1.3 Professional and personal life -- 14.2.1.4 Personality -- 14.2.2 Barry Marshall -- 14.2.2.1 Family -- 14.2.2.2 Education -- 14.2.2.3 Professional and personal life -- 14.2.2.4 Personality -- 14.3 The Medical Problem that was Addressed -- 14.3.1 Gastric ulcers -- 14.3.2 Duodenal ulcers -- 14.3.3 Aspirin -- 14.3.4 False theories and treatments -- 14.3.5 H2 antagonists -- 14.3.6 Bismuth -- 14.3.7 Gastric bacteria -- 14.4 The Research -- 14.4.1 September-December 1981 -- 14.4.2 1982 -- 14.4.2.1 First culture -- 14.4.2.2 Bacteria and ulcers -- 14.4.2.3 First reactions -- 14.4.3 1983 -- 14.4.3.1 First publication -- 14.4.3.2 Serology and a wild theory -- 14.4.3.3 Bactericidal bismuth -- 14.4.4 1984 -- 14.4.4.1 Self-ingestion -- 14.4.4.2 Growing interest -- 14.4.4.3 Urease testing -- 14.4.5 1985 -- 14.4.5.1 First randomised controlled trial of antibiotic treatments for ulcers -- 14.4.5.2 Teamwork -- 14.4.5.3 Resistance -- 14.4.5.4 Full circle -- 14.5 Impact on Medical Science -- 14.5.1 Peptic ulceration -- 14.5.2 Dyspepsia management.

14.5.3 NSAIDs and aspirin as a cause of ulcers and the development of selective cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitors.