SYSTEM HEALTH MANAGEMENT -- Contents -- About the Editors -- List of Contributors -- Foreword -- Preface -- Part One THE SOCIO-TECHNICAL CONTEXT OF SYSTEM HEALTH MANAGEMENT -- 1 The Theory of System Health Management -- Overview -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Functions, Off-Nominal States, and Causation -- 1.3 Complexity and Knowledge Limitations -- 1.4 SHM Mitigation Strategies -- 1.5 Operational Fault Management Functions -- 1.5.1 Detection Functions and Model Adjustment -- 1.5.2 Fault Diagnosis -- 1.5.3 Failure Prognosis -- 1.5.4 Failure Response Determination -- 1.5.5 Failure Response -- 1.5.6 Fault and Failure Containment -- 1.6 Mechanisms -- 1.6.1 Fault Tolerance -- 1.6.2 Redundancy -- 1.7 Summary of Principles -- 1.8 SHM Implementation -- 1.9 Some Implications -- 1.9.1 Detecting Unpredicted Off-nominal States -- 1.9.2 Impossibility of Complete Knowledge Independence -- 1.9.3 The Need for, and Danger of, Bureaucracy -- 1.9.4 "Clean" Interfaces -- 1.9.5 Requirements, Models, and Islands of Rigor -- 1.10 Conclusion -- Bibliography -- 2 Multimodal Communication -- Overview -- 2.1 Multimodal Communication in SHM -- 2.2 Communication Channels -- 2.3 Learning from Disaster -- 2.4 Current Communication in the Aerospace Industry -- 2.5 The Problem of Sense-making in SHM Communication -- 2.6 The Costs of Faulty Communication -- 2.7 Implications -- 2.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- Bibliography -- 3 Highly Reliable Organizations -- Overview -- 3.1 The Study of HROs and Design for Dependability -- 3.2 Lessons from the Field: HRO Patterns of Behavior -- 3.2.1 Inseparability of Systemic Equipment and Anthropologic Hazards -- 3.2.2 Dynamic Management of System Risks -- 3.2.3 Social Perceptions of Benefits and Hazards -- 3.3 Dependable Design, Organizational Behavior, and Connections to the HRO Project -- 3.4 Conclusion -- Bibliography.

4 Knowledge Management -- Overview -- 4.1 Systems as Embedded Knowledge -- 4.2 KM and Information Technology -- 4.3 Reliability and Sustainability of Organizational Systems -- 4.4 Case Study of Building a Learning Organization: Goddard Space Flight Center -- 4.4.1 Practice 1: Pause and Learn (PaL) -- 4.4.2 Practice 2: Knowledge Sharing Workshops -- 4.4.3 Practice 3: Case Studies -- 4.4.4 Practice 4: Review Processes and Common Lessons Learned -- 4.4.5 Practice 5: Goddard Design Rules -- 4.4.6 Practice 6: Case-Based Management Training -- 4.5 Conclusion -- Bibliography -- 5 The Business Case for SHM -- Overview -- 5.1 Business Case Processes and Tools -- 5.2 Metrics to Support the Decision Process -- 5.2.1 Availability -- 5.2.2 Schedule Reliability -- 5.2.3 Maintenance Resource Utilization -- 5.2.4 ROI -- 5.2.5 NPV -- 5.2.6 Cash Flow -- 5.3 Factors to Consider in Developing an Enterprise Model -- 5.3.1 Operational Model -- 5.3.2 Financial Analysis -- 5.4 Evaluation of Alternatives -- 5.5 Modifications in Selected Baseline Model -- 5.5.1 Additions and Changes in Technology on Fleet Platforms -- 5.5.2 Additions and Changes in Technology in Support Operations -- 5.5.3 Changes in Policies and Procedures -- 5.6 Modeling Risk and Uncertainty -- 5.7 Model Verification and Validation -- 5.8 Evaluation Results -- 5.9 Conclusion -- Bibliography -- Part Two SHM AND THE SYSTEM LIFECYCLE -- 6 Health Management Systems Engineering and Integration -- Overview -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Systems Thinking -- 6.3 Knowledge Management -- 6.4 Systems Engineering -- 6.5 Systems Engineering Lifecycle Stages -- 6.6 Systems Engineering, Dependability, and Health Management -- 6.7 SHM Lifecycle Stages -- 6.7.1 Research Stage -- 6.7.2 Requirements Development Stage -- 6.7.3 System/Functional Analysis -- 6.7.4 Design Synthesis and Integration -- 6.7.5 System Test and Evaluation.

6.7.6 HM System Maturation -- 6.8 SHM Analysis Models and Tools -- 6.8.1 Safety Models -- 6.8.2 Reliability Models -- 6.8.3 Diagnostic Models -- 6.9 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- Bibliography -- 7 Architecture -- Overview -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 SHM System Architecture Components -- 7.2.1 Power Consumption -- 7.2.2 Data Communications -- 7.3 Examples of Power and Data Considerations -- 7.4 SHM System Architecture Characteristics -- 7.4.1 Processing -- 7.4.2 Operational Duration -- 7.4.3 Fault Tolerance and Failure Management -- 7.4.4 Reliability -- 7.4.5 Asset Availability -- 7.4.6 Compatibility -- 7.4.7 Maintainability -- 7.4.8 Extensibility -- 7.4.9 Centralized versus Distributed SHM -- 7.5 SHM System Architecture Advanced Concepts -- 7.5.1 Systems-of-Systems -- 7.5.2 Network-centric Operations -- 7.6 Conclusion -- Bibliography -- 8 System Design and Analysis Methods -- Overview -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Lifecycle Considerations -- 8.3 Design Methods and Practices for Effective SHM -- 8.3.1 Reliability Analysis Methods -- 8.3.2 Formal Design Methods -- 8.3.3 Function-Based Design Methods -- 8.3.4 Function-Based Failure and Risk Analysis Methods -- 8.3.5 Design for Testability Methods -- 8.3.6 System Analysis and Optimization Methods -- 8.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- Bibliography -- 9 Assessing and Maturing Technology Readiness Levels -- Overview -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Motivating Maturity Assessment -- 9.3 Review of Technology Readiness Levels -- 9.4 Special Needs of SHM -- 9.5 Mitigation Approaches -- 9.6 TRLs for SHM -- 9.7 A Sample Maturation Effort -- 9.8 Conclusion -- Bibliography -- 10 Verification and Validation -- Overview -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Existing Software V&V -- 10.2.1 Avionics V&V -- 10.2.2 NASA Requirements, Policies, Standards, and Procedures Relevant to Software -- 10.2.3 V&V for Spacecraft Fault Protection.

10.2.4 Example of Industry V&V Current Practice: Space Shuttle Main Engine Controller -- 10.3 Feasibility and Sufficiency of Existing Software V&V Practices for SHM -- 10.3.1 Feasibility -- 10.3.2 Sufficiency -- 10.4 Opportunities for Emerging V&V Techniques Suited to SHM -- 10.4.1 SHM Architecture -- 10.4.2 Models Used in SHM -- 10.4.3 Planning Systems in SHM -- 10.4.4 SHM of Software Systems -- 10.5 V&V Considerations for SHM Sensors and Avionics -- 10.5.1 Flight Hardware V&V -- 10.5.2 Sensor Data V&V -- 10.6 V&V Planning for a Specific SHM Application -- 10.6.1 Application Description -- 10.6.2 Data-Driven Anomaly Detection Using IMS -- 10.6.3 Model-Based Fault Diagnosis Using TEAMS -- 10.6.4 Rule-Driven Failure Recovery Using SHINE -- 10.7 A Systems Engineering Perspective on V&V of SHM -- 10.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- Bibliography -- 11 Certifying Vehicle Health Monitoring Systems -- Overview -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Durability for VHM Systems -- 11.3 Mechanical Design for Structural Health Monitoring Systems -- 11.4 Reliability and Longevity of VHM Systems -- 11.5 Software and Hardware Certification -- 11.6 Airworthiness Certification -- 11.7 Health and Usage Monitoring System Certification Example -- 11.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- Bibliography -- Part Three ANALYTICAL METHODS -- 12 Physics of Failure -- Overview -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Physics of Failure of Metals -- 12.2.1 High-Level Classification -- 12.2.2 Second-Level Classification -- 12.3 Physics of Failure of CMCs -- 12.3.1 Fracture -- 12.3.2 Material Loss -- 12.4 Conclusion -- Bibliography -- 13 Failure Assessment -- Overview -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 FMEA -- 13.3 SFMEA -- 13.4 FTA -- 13.5 SFTA -- 13.6 BDSA -- 13.7 Safety Analysis -- 13.8 Software Reliability Engineering -- 13.9 Tools and Automation -- 13.10 Future Directions -- 13.11 Conclusion.

Acknowledgments -- Bibliography -- 14 Reliability -- Overview -- 14.1 Time-to-Failure Model Concepts and Two Useful Distributions -- 14.1.1 Other Quantities of Interest in Reliability Analysis -- 14.1.2 Important Probability Distributions -- 14.2 Introduction to System Reliability -- 14.2.1 System Reliability Concepts -- 14.2.2 Metrics for System Reliability -- 14.2.3 Time Dependency of System Reliability -- 14.2.4 Systems with Simple Structures -- 14.2.5 Importance of Part Count in Product Design -- 14.3 Analysis of Censored Life Data -- 14.3.1 Analysis of Multiply Right-Censored Data -- 14.3.2 Probability Plotting -- 14.3.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation -- 14.3.4 Extensions to Data with Other Types of Censoring and Truncation -- 14.4 Accelerated Life Testing -- 14.5 Analysis of Degradation Data -- 14.5.1 A Simple Method of Degradation Data Analysis -- 14.5.2 Comments on the Approximate Degradation Analysis -- 14.6 Analysis of Recurrence Data -- 14.6.1 Mean Cumulative Function and Recurrence Rate -- 14.6.2 Non-parametric Estimation of the MCF -- 14.7 Software for Statistical Analysis of Reliability Data -- Acknowledgments -- Bibliography -- 15 Probabilistic Risk Assessment -- Overview -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 The Space Shuttle PRA -- 15.3 Assessing Cumulative Risks to Assist Project Risk Management -- 15.4 Quantification of Software Reliability -- 15.5 Description of the Techniques Used in the Space Shuttle PRA -- 15.5.1 The IE-MLD -- 15.5.2 The Mission Event Tree -- 15.5.3 Fault Trees -- 15.5.4 Linking the Fault Trees to the Event Trees -- 15.6 Conclusion -- Bibliography -- 16 Diagnosis -- Overview -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 General Diagnosis Problem -- 16.3 Failure Effect Propagation and Impact -- 16.4 Testability Analysis -- 16.5 Diagnosis Techniques -- 16.5.1 Rule-Based Expert Systems -- 16.5.2 Case-Based Reasoning Systems.

16.5.3 Learning System.