Handbook of Nanoscopy -- Contents to Volume -- Preface -- List of Contributors -- The Past, the Present, and the Future of Nanoscopy -- Part I Methods -- 1 Transmission Electron Microscopy -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 The Instrument -- 1.2.1 General Layout -- 1.2.2 Lenses and Lens Aberrations -- 1.3 Imaging and Diffraction Modes -- 1.3.1 Important Diffraction Geometries -- 1.3.2 Important Imaging Modes -- 1.4 Dynamical Diffraction Theory -- 1.4.1 Perfect Crystal Theory -- 1.4.1.1 Fourier Space Approach -- 1.4.1.2 Real-Space Approach -- 1.4.1.3 Bloch Wave Approach -- 1.4.2 Example Dynamical Computations -- 1.4.2.1 Analytical Two-Beam Solutions -- 1.4.2.2 Numerical Multibeam Approaches -- 1.4.2.3 Other Dynamical Scattering Phenomena -- 1.4.3 Defect Images -- 1.4.3.1 Theory -- 1.4.3.2 Defect Image Simulations -- References -- 2 Atomic Resolution Electron Microscopy -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Atoms: the Alphabet of Matter -- 2.1.2 The Ideal Experiment -- 2.1.3 Why Imaging? -- 2.1.4 Why Electron Microscopy? -- 2.2 Principles of Linear Image Formation -- 2.2.1 Real Imaging -- 2.2.2 Coherent Imaging -- 2.3 Imaging in the Electron Microscope -- 2.3.1 Theory of Abbe -- 2.3.2 Incoherent Effects -- 2.3.3 Imaging at Optimum Defocus: Phase Contrast Microscopy -- 2.3.4 Resolution -- 2.4 Experimental HREM -- 2.4.1 Aligning the Microscope -- 2.4.2 The Specimen -- 2.4.3 Interpretation of the High-Resolution Images -- 2.5 Quantitative HREM -- 2.5.1 Model-Based Fitting -- 2.5.2 Phase Retrieval -- 2.5.3 Exit Wave Reconstruction -- 2.5.4 Structure Retrieval: Channeling Theory -- 2.5.5 Resolving versus Refining -- Appendix 2.A: Interaction of the Electron with a Thin Object -- Appendix 2.B: Multislice Method -- Appendix 2.C: Quantum Mechanical Approach -- References -- 3 Ultrahigh-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy at Negative Spherical Aberration.

3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 The Principles of Atomic-Resolution Imaging -- 3.2.1 Resolution and Point Spread -- 3.2.2 Contrast -- 3.2.3 Enhanced Contrast under Negative Spherical Aberration Conditions -- 3.2.4 NCSI Imaging for Higher Sample Thicknesses -- 3.3 Inversion of the Imaging Process -- 3.4 Case Study: SrTiO3 -- 3.5 Practical Examples of Application of NCSI Imaging -- References -- 4 Z-Contrast Imaging -- 4.1 Recent Progress -- 4.2 Introduction to the Instrument -- 4.3 Imaging in the STEM -- 4.3.1 Probe Formation -- 4.3.2 The Ronchigram -- 4.3.3 Reciprocity between TEM and STEM -- 4.3.4 Coherent and Incoherent Imaging -- 4.3.5 Dynamical Diffraction -- 4.3.6 Depth Sectioning -- 4.3.7 Image Simulation and Quantification -- 4.4 Future Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 5 Electron Holography -- General Idea -- 5.1 Image-Plane Off-Axis Holography Using the Electron Biprism -- 5.1.1 Recording a Hologram -- 5.1.2 Reconstruction of the Electron Wave -- 5.2 Properties of the Reconstructed Wave -- 5.2.1 Time Averaging -- 5.2.2 Inelastic Filtering -- 5.2.3 Basis for Recovering the Object Exit Wave -- 5.2.4 Amplitude Image -- 5.2.5 Phase Image -- 5.2.6 Field of View -- 5.2.7 Lateral Resolution -- 5.2.7.1 Fringe Spacing -- 5.2.7.2 Optimizing the Paths of Rays for Holography -- 5.2.8 Digitization of the Image Wave -- 5.2.9 Signal Resolution-Signal/Noise Properties -- 5.2.10 Amount of Information in the Reconstructed Wave -- 5.3 Holographic Investigations -- 5.3.1 Electric Fields -- 5.3.1.1 Structure Potentials -- 5.3.1.2 Intrinsic Electric Fields -- 5.3.2 Magnetic Fields -- 5.3.2.1 Distinction between Electric and Magnetic Phase Shift -- 5.3.3 Holography at Atomic Dimensions -- 5.3.3.1 Special Aspects for Acquisition of Atomic Resolution Holograms -- 5.3.3.2 Lateral Resolution: Fringe Spacing.

5.3.3.3 Width of Hologram, Number of Fringes, and Pixel Number of CCD Camera -- 5.3.3.4 Adaptation of the Hologram Geometry -- 5.3.3.5 Optimum Focus of Objective Lens -- 5.3.3.6 Demands on Signal Resolution -- 5.4 Special Techniques -- 5.4.1 Holographic Tomography -- 5.4.2 Dark-Field Holography -- 5.4.3 Inelastic Holography -- 5.5 Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 6 Lorentz Microscopy and Electron Holography of Magnetic Materials -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Lorentz Microscopy -- 6.2.1 Historical Background -- 6.2.2 Imaging Modes -- 6.2.3 Applications -- 6.3 Off-Axis Electron Holography -- 6.3.1 Historical Background -- 6.3.2 Basis and Governing Equations -- 6.3.3 Experimental Requirements -- 6.3.4 Magnetic and Mean Inner Potential Contributions to the Phase -- 6.3.5 Applications -- 6.3.6 Quantitative Measurement of Magnetic Moments Using Electron Holography -- 6.4 Discussion and Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 7 Electron Tomography -- 7.1 History and Background -- 7.1.1 Introduction to Nanoscale Systems -- 7.1.2 Tomography -- 7.2 Theory of Tomography -- 7.2.1 Real Space Reconstruction Using Backprojection -- 7.3 Electron Tomography, Missing Wedge, and Imaging Modes -- 7.4 STEM Tomography and Applications -- 7.5 Hollow-Cone DF Tomography -- 7.6 Diffraction Contrast Tomography -- 7.7 Electron Holographic Tomography -- 7.8 Inelastic Electron Tomography -- 7.9 Advanced Reconstruction Techniques -- 7.10 Quantification and Atomic Resolution Tomography -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 8 Statistical Parameter Estimation Theory - A Tool for Quantitative Electron Microscopy -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Methodology -- 8.2.1 Aim of Statistical Parameter Estimation Theory -- 8.2.2 Parametric Statistical Model of the Observations -- 8.2.3 Properties of Estimators -- 8.2.4 Attainable Precision -- 8.2.5 Maximum Likelihood Estimation.

8.2.5.1 The Need for a Good Starting Model -- 8.2.6 Model Assessment -- 8.2.7 Confidence Regions and Intervals -- 8.3 Electron Microscopy Applications -- 8.3.1 Resolution versus Precision -- 8.3.2 Atom Column Position Measurement -- 8.3.3 Model-Based Quantification of Electron Energy Loss Spectra -- 8.3.4 Quantitative Atomic Resolution Mapping using High-Angle Annular Dark Field Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy -- 8.3.5 Statistical Experimental Design -- 8.4 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 9 Dynamic Transmission Electron Microscopy -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Time-Resolved Studies Using Electrons -- 9.2.1 Brightness, Emittance, and Coherence -- 9.2.2 Single-Shot Space-Time Resolution Trade-Offs -- 9.3 Building a DTEM -- 9.3.1 The Base Microscope and Experimental Method -- 9.3.2 Current Performance of Single-Shot DTEM -- 9.4 Applications of DTEM -- 9.4.1 Reactive Nanolaminate Films -- 9.4.2 Experimental Methods -- 9.4.3 Diffraction Results -- 9.4.4 Imaging Results -- 9.4.5 Discussion -- 9.5 Future Developments for DTEM -- 9.5.1 Arbitrary Waveform Generation Laser -- 9.5.2 Acquiring High Time Resolution Movies -- 9.5.3 Aberration Correction -- 9.5.4 In Situ Liquid Stages -- 9.5.5 Novel Electron Sources -- 9.5.6 Pulse Compression -- 9.6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 10 Transmission Electron Microscopy as Nanolab -- 10.1 TEM and Measuring the Electrical Properties -- 10.1.1 TEM and Measuring Electrical Properties. Example 1: Electromigration -- 10.1.2 TEM and Measuring Electrical Properties. Example 2: Carbon Nanotubes -- 10.2 TEM with MEMS-Based Heaters -- 10.2.1 TEM with MEMS-Based Heaters. Example 1: Graphene at Various Temperatures -- 10.2.2 TEM with MEMS-Based Heaters. Example 2: Morphological Changes on Au Nanoparticles -- 10.3 TEM with Gas Nanoreactors.

10.3.1 TEM with Gas Nanoreactors. Example 1: Hydrogen Storage Materials -- 10.3.2 TEM with Gas Nanoreactors. Example 2: STEM Imaging of a Layer of Gold Nanoparticles at 1 bar -- 10.4 TEM with Liquid Nanoreactors -- 10.4.1 TEM with Liquid Nanoreactors. Example 1: Cu Electrodeposition -- 10.4.2 TEM with Liquid Nanoreactors. Example 2: Nucleation, Growth, and Motion of Small Particles -- 10.5 TEM and Measuring Optical Properties -- 10.6 Sample Preparation for Nanolab Experiments -- 10.6.1 Sculpting with the Electron Beam -- 10.6.2 Sculpting with the Ga Ion Beam -- 10.6.3 Sculpting with the Helium Ion Beam -- References -- 11 Atomic-Resolution Environmental Transmission Electron Microscopy -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Atomic-Resolution ETEM -- 11.3 Development of Atomic-Resolution ETEM -- 11.4 Experimental Procedures -- 11.5 Applications with Examples -- 11.6 Nanoparticles and Catalytic Materials -- 11.6.1 Dynamic Nanoparticle Shape Modifications, Electronic Structures of Promoted Systems, and Dynamic Oxidation States -- 11.7 Oxides -- 11.8 In situ Atomic Scale Twinning Transformations in Metal Carbides -- 11.9 Dynamic Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy -- 11.10 Technological Benefits of Atomic-Resolution ETEM -- 11.11 Other Advances -- 11.12 Reactions in the Liquid Phase -- 11.13 In situ Studies with Aberration Correction -- 11.14 Examples and Discussion -- 11.15 Applications to Biofuels -- 11.16 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 12 Speckles in Images and Diffraction Patterns -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 What Is Speckle? -- 12.3 What Causes Speckle? -- 12.4 Diffuse Scattering -- 12.5 From Bragg Reflections to Speckle -- 12.6 Coherence -- 12.6.1 Temporal Coherence -- 12.6.2 Coherence Length -- 12.6.3 Spatial Coherence -- 12.6.4 Coherence Volume -- 12.7 Fluctuation Electron Microscopy -- 12.7.1 Measuring Speckle -- 12.8 Variance versus Mean.

12.9 Speckle Statistics.