Preface -- Contents -- List of contributing authors -- 1 Variability and trends of global sea ice cover and sea level: effects on physicochemical parameters -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Variability and trends of global sea ice -- 1.2.1 Arctic Region -- 1.2.2 Antarctic Region -- 1.3 Variability and trends in sea level -- 1.3.1 Contributions from warming oceans -- 1.3.2 Contributions from glaciers, ice sheets and others -- 1.4 Effects on physicochemical parameters -- 1.4.1 Large-scale changes in surface temperature -- 1.4.2 Large-scale changes in plankton concentration and primary productivity -- 1.4.3 Changes in other physicochemical parameters -- 1.5 Discussion and conclusions -- 2 New techniques in environment monitoring -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 In situ harmful algal bloom monitoring -- 2.2.1 Optical remote sensing -- 2.2.2 Automated monitoring -- 2.2.3 HABs sampling based on absorption -- 2.3 Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry -- 2.4 Biosensors for HABs monitoring -- 2.4.1 Optical biosensors -- 2.4.2 Electrochemical biosensors -- 2.4.3 Mass biosensors -- 2.4.4 Magnetic-based biosensors -- 2.5 Advances in nanotechnology for HAB detection -- 2.5.1 Nanoparticles -- 2.5.2 Analytical nano-applications -- 2.6 Molecular biology-based techniques for HABs detection -- 2.6.1 Overview -- 2.6.2 DNA/RNA targets -- 2.6.3 Hybridization-based techniques -- 2.6.4 Amplification-based techniques -- 2.6.5 Aptamers for toxin detection -- 2.7 Future perspectives -- 3 Responses of marine animals to ocean acidification -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 What causes ocean acidification -- 3.2.1 Effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide loading -- 3.2.2 Influence of primary production -- 3.2.3 Carbon balance in coastal areas -- 3.2.4 Interactions between temperature changes and ocean acidification.

3.3 Processes of animals that are expected to be affected -- 3.3.1 pH regulation -- 3.3.2 Calcification -- 3.3.3 Development -- 3.3.4 Oxygen transport and metabolism -- 3.3.5 Behavior -- 3.4 Conclusions -- 4 Alexandrium spp.: genetic and ecological factors influencing saxitoxin production and proliferation -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Alexandrium taxonomy, phylogenetics and species evolution -- 4.3 What are saxitoxins? -- 4.3.1 Which species produce saxitoxins? -- 4.3.2 The sxt genes in dinoflagellates -- 4.4 Ecological factors influencing Alexandrium spp. proliferation and toxicity -- 4.4.1 The role of ecophysiological adaptations in ecology and bloom formation of Alexandrium life cycles -- 4.4.2 Mixotrophic nutrition -- 4.4.3 Allelopathy -- 4.5 Effects of environmental factors on Alexandrium proliferation and toxicity -- 4.5.1 Nutrients -- 4.5.2 Temperature -- 4.5.3 CO2 -- 4.5.4 Salinity -- 4.6 Adaptation to changing climate conditions -- 5 Potential effects of climate change on cyanobacterial toxin production -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Microcystins and nodularins -- 5.1.2 Cylindrospermopsins -- 5.1.3 Saxitoxins -- 5.1.4 Anatoxin-a and homo-anatoxin-a -- 5.1.5 Anatoxin-a(S) -- 5.1.6 Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) -- 5.2 Effects of climate change on common toxin producing species -- 5.2.1 Microcystis -- 5.2.2 Cylindrospermopsis -- 5.2.3 Dolichospermum -- 5.2.4 Planktothrix -- 5.2.5 Phormidium -- 5.3 Effects of climate change on toxin regulation -- 5.3.1 Microcystins -- 5.3.2 Nodularins -- 5.3.3 Cylindrospermopsins -- 5.3.4 Saxitoxins -- 5.3.5 Anatoxins -- 5.4 Climate change and its effect on cyanobacteria and toxin production in Polar environments -- 5.5 Conclusions.

6 Harmful marine algal blooms and climate change: progress on a formidable predictive challenge -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Algal bloom range extensions and climate change -- 6.3 Range extensions further aided by ship ballast water transport -- 6.4 The formidable challenge of predicting phytoplankton community responses -- 6.5 We can learn from the fossil record, long-term plankton records and decadal scale climate events -- 6.6 Mitigation of the likely impact on seafood safety -- 7 Global warming, climate patterns and toxic cyanobacteria -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The effect of global warming on inland water bodies -- 7.2.1 Direct effects of global warming on inland water bodies -- 7.2.2 Indirect effects of global warming on inland water bodies -- 7.3 The ecology of cyanobacteria and toxin production -- 7.3.1 Environmental factors affecting cyanobacterial biomass -- 7.3.2 Environmental factors affecting microcystin production -- 7.3.3 Ecological factors affecting cyanobacterial blooms: competition -- 7.4 Direct and indirect effects of global warming on cyanobacterial growth -- 7.4.1 Temperature, stratification, and mixing -- 7.4.2 Nutrients -- 7.4.3 Salinity -- 7.4.4 Turbidity and pH -- 7.5 Direct and indirect effects of global warming on microcystin concentration -- 7.6 Why should we care? -- 8 Human impact in Mediterranean coastal ecosystems and climate change: emerging toxins -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Mediterranean coastal ecosystems -- 8.2.1 Human impact -- 8.2.2 Socio-economical implications of Climate Change -- 8.2.3 Effect to ecosystem from extreme events of climate change -- 8.2.4 Ecological response to Climate Change -- 8.3 Emerging toxins in the Mediterranean Sea -- 8.3.1 Identified emerging toxins and climate change effects -- 8.4 Conclusion.

9 Gambierdiscus, the cause of ciguatera fish poisoning: an increased human health threat influenced by climate change -- 9.1 The genus Gambierdiscus -- 9.2 Morphology and phylogenetics -- 9.3 Geographic distribution and abundance -- 9.3.1 The Pacific and Indian Ocean Regions -- 9.3.2 The Atlantic Ocean Region -- 9.4 CTXs and MTXs -- 9.5 Toxicity of different species of Gambierdiscus -- 9.6 Detection of CTXs and MTXs in seafood -- 9.7 Conclusion -- 10 Control and management of Harmful Algal Blooms -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Global water crisis -- 10.3 Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins -- 10.4 Cyanobacterial prevention and mitigation -- 10.5 Cyanobacterial management -- 10.6 Case study: The management of cyanobacteria in waste stabilization ponds -- 10.7 Treatment of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins with hydrogen peroxide -- 10.8 New techniques for the control and characterization of cyanobacterial blooms -- 10.8.1 Allelopathic control of cyanobacteria -- 10.8.2 Optimization of the FDA-PI method using flow cytometry to measure metabolic activity of cyanobacteria -- 10.9 New perspectives and future directions -- 11 Global climate change profile and its possible effects on the reproductive cycle, sex expression and sex change of shellfish as marine toxins vectors -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Shellfish as marine toxins vectors -- 11.2.1 General considerations -- 11.2.2 Global increase in HABs -- 11.2.3 Global climate change -- 11.3 Reproductive cycle, sex expression and sex change in shellfish -- 11.3.1 Reproductive cycle, reproductive period and sex expression in bivalve mollusks -- 11.3.2 What is sex? -- 11.3.3 Sex determination: everything happens in the embryo.

11.3.4 Sex determination of the gonad and sex differentiation of primordial germ cells (PGCs): molecular basis and regulation -- 11.3.5 Gonad somatic sex and germline sex in bivalve mollusks -- 11.3.6 Sex, sex reversal, types of sexuality and sex change in bivalve mollusks -- 11.3.7 What does sex change mean and how could this process be performed by bivalve mollusks? -- 11.3.8 Temperature, photoperiod, reproductive cycle and sex change in bivalve mollusks -- 11.3.9 Climate change, reproductive cycle, sex expression and sex change in bivalve mollusks -- 11.4 Concluding remarks -- 12 Effects on world food production and security -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Foodborne and waterborne diseases -- 12.3 Zoonosis and other animal diseases -- 12.4 Product safety in fisheries -- 12.5 Aquaculture food production -- 12.6 Harmful algal blooms -- 12.6.1 Impact of temperature change on harmful algal blooms -- 12.6.2 Acidification of waters and effect on harmful algal blooms -- 12.6.3 Impact of sea-level rise and increased precipitation on harmful algal communities -- 12.6.4 Microalgal toxicity -- 12.7 Harmful algal blooms and aquatic food safety -- 12.7.1 Predictive modeling -- 12.8 Future perspectives -- 13 From science to policy: dynamic adaptation of legal regulations on aquatic biotoxins -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Current worldwide regulations on marine phycotoxins -- 13.2.1 Maximum permitted levels -- 13.2.2 Official detection methods -- 13.3 Current worldwide regulations on cyanotoxins -- 13.4 New occurrences of toxic episodes challenge protection of consumer's safety -- 13.5 Limitations for the development and implementation of new regulations: from science to policy or from policy to science? -- 13.5.1 Technical limitations for recent/future toxin regulations.

13.5.2 Toxicological limitations for new toxin regulations.