Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- Executive Summary -- Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Data Notes -- 1. Secondary Education: From Weakest Link to Cornerstone -- Historical Background -- The U.S. Template for Expansion of Secondary Education -- European Patterns of Expansion of Secondary Education -- Asian Patterns of Expansion of Secondary Education -- Definition and Organizational Structures of Secondary Education -- Differential Traits of Secondary Education -- Duration of Study -- School-to-Work Transition -- The Policy Paradox of Secondary Education -- Conclusion -- Notes -- 2. The Importance of Investing in Secondary Education -- Direct Benefits and Externalities -- Contribution to Growth and Poverty Reduction -- Contribution to Improvements in Health, Gender Equality, and Living Conditions -- Contribution to Realization of Democracy -- Contribution to Primary and Tertiary Education -- The Soaring Demand for Quality Secondary Education -- Demand for More Educated Workers -- Demand for Enhanced Relevance and Quality -- Effects and Side Effects of the Expansion of Secondary Education -- Conclusion -- Notes -- 3. The Twin Challenges in Secondary Education: Expanding Access and Improving Quality and Relevance -- From Elitism to Inclusiveness: Expanding Access to Secondary Education Secondary Education -- Equity Considerations -- Regional and Country Disparities -- Demand-Side Interventions -- Low Retention and Completion in Secondary Education -- Incorporating Adults into the Secondary Education System -- Secondary Education Attainment -- Low Quality and Relevance -- Conclusion -- Note -- 4. Similar Challenges, Differing Realities -- A Framework for Grouping Countries -- Application of Porter's Model to Secondary Education -- Conclusion -- Notes -- 5. Responding to the Twin Challenges: Curriculum and Assessment.

Curricula-Intended and Implemented -- The Unbearable Irrelevance of the Secondary School Curriculum -- Building Metacognitive Capital and Creative Capital -- Building Social Capital, Preventing Social Conflict, and Learning to Live Together -- The Shifting and Fading Frontier between the General and Vocational Curricula -- Dialectics of General and Vocational Secondary Education -- The Rise and Fall of Curriculum Knowledge Areas: The Politics of Knowledge and Its Market Value -- Summary: Trends in Secondary Education Curriculum Reform -- Measuring What Students Learn and Master -- National Examinations: The Way Into and the Way Out of Secondary Education -- High Stakes and the Signaling and Screening Functions of Examinations -- The New Wave of International Comparative Studies of Student Achievement -- National Assessments of Student Achievement -- Summary: Assess Locally, Examine Nationally, and Compare Globally -- Note -- 6. Responding to the Twin Challenges: Teachers, Teaching, and Technology -- Secondary School Teachers: Shortages, Professional Identity, and Training Issues -- To What Extent Is Investment in Preservice Teacher Training for Secondary Education Worthwhile? -- Matching Teaching Skills with Required Key Competencies for Secondary School Graduates -- Teaching and Learning with Technology -- Use of ICT for Distance Education to Expand the Venues for Learning -- Use of Computers and the Internet to Improve the Quality and Relevance of Education -- Potential and Promise -- Challenges and Risks -- Conclusion: Options for Change -- Notes -- 7. Financing Secondary Education -- Fiscal Magnitude of Trends in the Expansion of Secondary Education -- Approaches to Improving the Financing of Secondary Education -- Simple Benchmarks for Determining the Adequacy of Investment in Secondary Education -- Private or Community Funding Options.

Fees or Cost Recovery -- Formula Funding -- Conclusion -- Notes -- 8. Governance in Secondary Education: Managing Expansion and Quality Improvement -- Steering Secondary Education -- Center-Locality Relationships -- Regulations Affecting Access and Parental Decisions -- Managing the Political-Professional and Central-Local Tensions -- The Organizational Challenges of Managing Secondary Schools -- Traditional Organizing Principles of Secondary Schools -- Key Factors in Secondary School Effectiveness -- The Evolving Role of Principals -- Involving Parents and Communities -- Conclusion -- Notes -- Epilogue: Rethinking Secondary Education -- Is It Just More of the Same? The Case for Transforming Secondary Education Policy and Practice -- Trade-Offs in Secondary Education Policy: The Old and the New -- The Political Dimension of Change in Secondary Education -- Note -- Appendixes -- A Structure of Education Systems and Compulsory Education -- B Grade Completion by Income Group and Gender, Selected Countries, Various Years -- C Educational Attainment by Income Group and Gender, Selected Countries -- D Selected Education Pyramids -- E Gross Enrollment Rates and Educational Attainment by Income Level -- F ARoad Map of Teacher Competencies for a Knowledge-Based Secondary School -- G Public-Private Partnerships for Secondary Education -- H Formula Funding in Secondary Education: Country Examples -- I Asymmetric Decentralization in Colombia and South Africa -- J World Bank Support for Secondary Education -- Bibliography -- Index -- Boxes -- 1.1 Country Responses to the Changing Status of Secondary Vocational Education -- 2.1 Mounting Pressures on Secondary Education in Cambodia -- 2.2 Inequities in Educational Attainment in Developing Countries -- 3.1 Secondary Education in India: Building on Successes in Primary Schooling.

3.2 Progresa, Mexico's Cash-for-Education Program -- 3.3 Policies for Expansion of Secondary Education in China -- 3.4 The Drive for Universal Primary and Secondary Education in Korea -- 4.1 Triple-Axis Framework for Grouping Countries -- 5.1 Secondary Curriculum Overload in Eastern Europe and Central Asia -- 5.2 Jordan's Secondary Education Reform Based on IAEP Data -- 6.1 Types of Virtual School in the United States, with Examples -- 6.2 World Links: A Global Learning Community -- 7.1 Excerpt from a Debate in the British House of Commons, July 9, 1999 -- 7.2 Analyzing the Distribution of Education Expenditures: A Case Study of Lesotho -- 7.3 Expanding Access through the Use of Private Sector Capacity: The Case of the Republic of Korea -- 7.4 Fees and Contributions in Secondary Education: Examples from Africa and Chile -- 8.1 Decentralization in India: Kerala State -- 8.2 Characteristics of a Centralized Education System with Elements of Devolution -- 8.3 Characteristics of a Regional Devolution System -- 8.4 School Report Card in Paraná, Brazil -- 8.5 Characteristics of a Local Control System -- 8.6 Transfer of Responsibilities and Power to the Local Level in Sweden -- 8.7 A Well-Structured but Not-So-Effective System: The Case of Bangladesh -- 8.8 Characteristics of Institutional Autonomy through Quasi-Markets -- 8.9 Models and Features of Policies on Access to Secondary Education -- 8.10 Engagement of Stakeholders in Policy Dialogue: Chile -- 8.11 Characteristics of Effective Secondary Schools -- 8.12 Main Characteristics of Different Types of Small School -- 8.13 Teacher-Led Decision-Making Teams -- J.1 Issues and Priorities in Secondary Education by Region -- Figures -- 1.1 Ages of Entry to and Exit from Compulsory Education by Region, circa 2000 -- 2.1 HIV Prevalence by Educational Attainment, Age 18-29, Rural Uganda, 1990-2000.

2.2 Under-Five Mortality Rates, by Mother's Educational Level, Selected Areas, circa 1998 -- 3.1 Gross Enrollment Rates in Secondary Schools and GDP per Capita, 127 Countries, 1990 -- 3.2 Gross Enrollment Rates in Secondary Education by Region, 1970-95 -- 3.3 Gender Parity Index in Secondary Education by Region, Selected Years, 1970-2000 -- 3.4 Share of Population with at Least Some Secondary Education by Region, 1960-2000 and Projected to 2010 -- 3.5 Share of Rural and Urban Cohorts Reaching Next Grade in School, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, and Peru, Early 1990s -- 3.6 Average Years of Schooling, Population Age Five and Older, by Region, 1960, 1980, and 2000 -- 3.7 Educational Level of Population Age 15 and Older by Region, 1960 and 2000 -- 3.8 Distribution of the Population over Age 15 by Educational Attainment, Selected Countries -- 3.9 Student Performance and GDP per Capita, Selected Economies, PISA 2000, Reading -- 3.10 Percentage of Students Age 15 at Each Level of Proficiency on the PISA Reading Literacy Scale, Selected Economies, 2000 -- 3.11 PISA Achievement, OECD Average and Selected Developing Countries, 2000 -- 3.12 Relative Performance of High-Income Countries and Selected Middle-Income Countries (South Africa, Morocco, and Chile) on the TIMSS-R -- 3.13 Access, Learning, and Income by Country Income Group -- 4.1 Education Stock and Current Efforts to Increase Educational Attainment by Country Income Group, 2000 or Latest Year Available -- 5.1 Mean Proportion of Total Instructional Time Allocated to Curricular Areas, Grades 7 and 8, by Region, 1985 and 2000 -- 5.2 Economywide Measures of Routine and Nonroutine Task Input, United States, 1969-98 -- 6.1 Categories Contributing to Pedagogical Content Knowledge -- 6.2 Secondary School Teacher Competencies -- 7.1 Decision Pathways for Financing Secondary Education.

7.2 Gross Enrollment Rates for the Countries with the Lowest and Highest GDP per Capita Growth Rates, 1970-2000 and 1980-2000.